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IVA« 


IMPROVING  SCHOOLS 

BY 

STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


BY 

SAMUEL  S.  BROOKS 

District  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Winchester,  N.H. 
UNDER  THE  EDITORSHIP  OF 

B.  R.  BUCKINGHAM,  PH.D. 

Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 
Ohio  Stale  University 


HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

BOSTON      NEW  YORK      CHICAGO      SAN  FRANCISCO 
Cbe  iEibecsibe  |3rcs£  Cambi;iI)Qe 

72411 


COPYRIGHT,  1922 

BY  SAMUEL  S.  BROOKS 
ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


CAMBRIDGE  ■  MASSACHUSETTS 
PRINTED  IN  THE  U.S.A. 


L  t:> 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

J  This  book  divides  itself  naturally  into  two  parts.   The 
k-   first  part  has  to  do  with  the  situation  in  which  Superin- 
tendent Brooks  found  himself,  with  his  successful  campaign 
in  educating  his  teachers  to  use  standardized  tests,  with 
the  results  which  he  obtained,  with  the  way  he  used  these 
results  to  grade  his  pupils,  to  rate  his  teachers,  and  to 
^    evaluate  methods  of  teaching,  and  finally  with  the  use  he 
:^    made  of  intelligence  tests.    This  is  the  first  time,  so  far  as 
j^\^^   I  know,  that  a  practical  school  man  has,  after  planning 
carefully  and  executing  to  the  last  essential  detail  a  large 
testing  program,  set  down  for  the  guidance  of  other  prac- 
^    tical  school  men  just  what  he  did. 

■c        We  have  waited  a  long  time  for  this.     The  test-makers 
and  technical  research  workers  have  been  heard  from  exten- 
^ )    sively;  and  some  of  them  have  written  for  the  benefit  of 
nJ    teachers  and  supervising  officials.     Here,  however,  is  one 
^     of  their  number  who  found  unfavorable  conditions  in  the 
/     district  to  which  he  had  been  assigned.     He  secured  the 
>     support  of  his  teachers  in  making  a  survey  of  these  con- 
ditions by  means  of  standardized  tests.    He  gave  the  tests 
three  times  and  made  certain  important  uses  of  the  results. 
Teachers,  pupils,  and  parents  were  in  favor  of  the  tests 
as  he  used  them.     Moreover,  he  tells  us  just  how  he  did 
these  things;  and  he  tells  the  story  so  clearly  and  so  vividly 
that  any  one  who  reads  his  account  will  feel  that  he  can 
do  likewise. 
The  second  part  of  the  book  has  to  do  with  the  changes 


iv  EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

in  methods  of  teaching  which  were  brought  about  because 
of  the  knowledge  gained  from  the  tests.  This  is  the  best  — 
is  it  not  the  only?  —  account  of  a  testing  program  which  has 
been  carried  through  to  its  logical  conclusion.  It  is  the  best 
answer  I  know  to  the  question  so  often  raised,  "What 
shall  we  do  with  the  results  of  tests?"  Nor  is  the  answer 
conceived  narrowly.  It  is  not  concerned  with  mere  devices. 
It  has  a  philosophy,  and  it  is  broad  and  fundamental. 
Definite  methods  are  shown  and  shown  in  detail,  but  they 
are  based  on  sound  general  principles.  For  example,  he 
justifies  his  startling  doctrine  that  the  first  reading  in- 
struction should  be  in  silent  reading  by  the  principles  of 
association.  Again,  he  introduces  a  plan  of  teaching  chil- 
dren how  to  study  because  the  tests  measure  the  results  of 
study  and  because  if  one  wishes  to  improve  the  results  of 
teaching  as  measured  by  tests,  one  must  first  improve 
methods  of  study. 

Even  with  reference  to  particular  subjects  the  measures 
he  has  adopted  and  described  are  something  more  than 
expedients.  Even  here  they  are  broadly  conceived.  In 
reading,  for  example,  he  recognizes  a  general  principle  ap- 
plicable to  all  subjects.  The  general  principle  is  that  in 
order  to  improve  instruction  in  terms  of  test  results,  one 
must  develop  in  the  pupils  the  abilities  which  the  tests 
measure  —  not  other  abilities,  not  even  similar  abilities, 
but  the  precise  abilities  which  the  tests  measure  as  nearly 
as  these  can  be  ascertained. 

I  am  aware  that  there  will  be  a  few  transcendentalists 
among  research  workers  who  at  this  point  will  cry  out  that 
neither  Superintendent  Brooks  nor  I  know  what  the  tests 
measure.     These  are  the  men  whose  daily  occupation  is 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION  v 

straining  at  gnats  and  swallowing  camels.  It  is  well  enough 
for  them  to  do  this  among  themselves,  but  some  of  them 
would  hold  up  all  progress  while  they  split  hairs  over  the 
setting  up  of  a  theoretically  perfect  "criterion"  and  the 
devising  of  a  test  of  highest  possible  correlation  with  it. 
This  is  good  work,  and  I  do  not  deprecate  it.  But  the 
work  of  the  schools  must  be  done.  Instruments  of  measure- 
ment must  be  used  even  if  they  are  lacking  somewhat  in 
vahdity. 

At  any  rate,  a  practical  man  who  thinks  about  silent 
reading  readily  concludes  that  rate  and  comprehension  are 
the  two  items  which  ought  to  be  measured  and  which  the 
tests  do  apparently  measure.  He  infers,  therefore,  that  a 
method  of  teaching  reading  which  is  to  develop  the  abil- 
ities measured  by  the  tests  must  aim  at  these  two  objec- 
tives —  rate  and  comprehension.  This  at  least  is  Super- 
intendent Brooks's  line  of  thought,  and  he  pursues  it  with 
vigor  and  success. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  expert  in  tests  the  author 
undoubtedly  displays  an  uncritical  acceptance  of  them. 
Fine  statistical  points  are  ignored;  practice  effects  are  for- 
gotten; validity  is  assumed;  and  reliability  is  all  but  un- 
questioned.    In  short,  the  test-maker  is  accepted  as  hav- 
ig  done  his  work.     Some  of  us  arc  sure  that  he  is  not  en- 
tled  to  this  degree  of  confidence;  nor  —  to  be  entirely 
( ir  —  does  he  think  so  himself.     For  the  most  part  he  is 
[  1  experimentalist,  trying  one  device  after  another,  call- 
^  g  this  a  reading  test  and  that  an  arithmetic  test,  with- 
it  agreeing  with  his  fellow  test-makers  as  to  what  ability 
either  of  these  subjects  may  be.    There  is  in  this  book  an 
apressible  object  lesson  for  the  test  expert.  From  it  he  may 


VI  EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

see  clearly  how  vital  it  is  that  he  analyze  the  objectives  in 
teaching  and  that  he  make  his  tests  true  measures  of  the 
extent  to  which  the  objectives  are  realized.  It  is  clear  that 
if  school  people  are  going  to  adopt  the  tests  in  the  spirit 
displayed  by  Superintendent  Brooks's  teachers  in  chap- 
ter X,  a  burden  of  responsibility  is  laid  upon  the  test- 
maker  which  he  cannot  evade. 

Again,  there  will  be  many  practical  teachers,  principals, 
and  supervising  officials  who  will  feel  that  there  are  many 
products  of  teaching  which  the  tests  fail  to  measure.  These 
school  men  and  women  will  point  out  that  the  abilities 
which  are  here  exalted  are  of  the  more  formal  type.  Yet 
it  is  entirely  possible  that  the  abilities  which  the  tests 
directly  measure  are  representatives  of  the  higher  abilities 
which  the  tests  do  not  directly  measure  and  which  it  is  un- 
doubtedly the  business  of  the  school  to  inculcate.  For 
example,  rate  and  comprehension  of  reading,  which  the 
tests  purport  to  measure  directly,  may  fairly  be  said  to 
condition  the  acquiring  of  more  complex  qualities  having  to 
do  with  taste,  attitude,  and  appreciation  —  qualities  which 
manifest  themselves  to  an  increasing  degree  as  rate  and 
comprehension  of  reading  are  developed.  It  may  very  well 
be  that  the  better  our  pupils  can  read,  add,  and  spell,  or  an- 
swer questions  in  language,  geography,  and  history,  the 
better  they  will  manifest  the  qualities  which  are  valuable 
in  a  social  organism.  Indeed,  it  can  hardly  be  otherwise. 
These  subjects  are  in  the  course  of  study  by  common  con- 
sent; nor  are  the  efforts  of  the  curriculum  makers,  even  of 
the  most  advanced  type,  directed  toward  their  entire 
withdrawal.  They  are  in  the  course  of  study  because  they 
are  believed  to  serve  the  higher  purposes  of  education.  If 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION  vii 

this  is  true,  there  is  a  case  to  be  made  out  for  teaching  these 
subjects  well,  and  for  the  belief  that,  within  reasonable 
limits,  the  better  they  are  taught,  the  more  surely  the 
broader  purposes  of  education  will  be  served.  It  will  be 
time  for  the  experts  in  high  places  and  the  conservatives  in 
all  places  to  criticize  the  author  when  they  have  accom- 
plished as  much  without  tests  as  he  has  with  them. 

To  my  mind  chapters  x  to  xv  —  constituting  what  I 
have  called  the  second  part  of  the  book  —  are  unique. 
Professor  Cubberley  has  pointed  out  that  because  of  the 
measurement  movement,  the  whole  subject  of  Educational 
Administration,  in  a  decade  or  two,  may  need  to  be  reor- 
ganized and  books  on  the  subject  rewritten  in  terms  of 
this  new  scientific  development.  The  same  statement 
may  be  made  as  to  the  subject  of  Methods  of  Teaching 
and  as  to  books  on  that  subject.  Those  methods  will  gain 
favor  which  produce  measurable  results.  A  method  will 
not  be  taken  for  granted  because  some  one  high  in  author- 
ity favors  it.  In  fact  in  these  days  no  one  high  in  authority 
will  promulgate  a  method  merely  as  his  ipse  dixit.  Super- 
intendent Brooks  has  much  to  offer  in  these  last  chapters 
about  method  —  methods  of  teaching  reading  in  both  pri- 
mary and  upper  grades,  methods  of  handling  the  content 
subjects  and  of  teaching  children  to  study.  But  these 
methods  are  the  immediate  outgrowth  of  his  testing  pro- 
gram, and  they  are  designed  to  improve  the  conditions 
which  his  testing  program  disclosed.  They  are  methods 
which  he  has  tried  and  the  effects  of  which  he  gives  us. 
They  are  therefore  convincing. 

B.  R.  Buckingham 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  written  for  superintendents,  teachers,  and  all 
other  persons  interested  in  the  use  of  educational  tests  and 
measurements  as  a  means  of  improving  the  work  of  the 
schools.  It  tells  how  standardized  tests  and  scales  were 
used  periodically  for  two  years  throughout  an  entire  su- 
pervisory district,  and  how  the  results  of  the  tests  were  put 
to  practical  use  in  classifying  pupils  into  grades,  for  meas- 
uring the  progress  of  pupils  in  their  studies  as  a  partial 
basis  for  promotion  of  pupils,  for  measuring  the  effi- 
ciency of  teachers,  for  measuring  the  relative  efficiency 
of  special  methods,  and  for  motivating  the  work  of  both 
teachers  and  pupils.  It  also  tells  of  remedial  measures, 
in  the  way  of  modification  of  subject-matter  and  teaching 
methods,  taken  to  improve  unsatisfactory  conditions  re- 
vealed by  the  use  of  the  tests. 

In  its  field,  the  book  is  unique  in  at  least  two  respects: 
(i)  it  is  a  narration  of  actual  experience  rather  than  an  ex- 
position of  theory,  and  (2)  it  describes  in  detail  how  a  com- 
prehensive, periodical  testing  program  was  planned  and 
carried  out,  how  the  interested  cooperation  of  the  teachers 
was  secured,  and  how  the  results  of  the  tests  were  used  to 
improve  the  schools.  One  whole  chapter  is  devoted  to  what 
the  teachers  and  pupils  had  to  say,  at  the  end  of  two  years' 
use  of  the  tests,  as  to  how  the  tests  were  of  help  to  them  in 
their  work. 

So  far  as  the  author  is  aware,  all  the  books  previously 


X  PREFACE 

published  on  the  subject  of  standardized  tests  and  measure- 
ments deal  almost  entirely  with  the  tests  themselves;  the 
need  for  them,  descriptions  and  reproductions  of  them 
and  data  concerning  their  derivation  and  standardization 
Very  little  is  said  as  to  how  the  tests  can  be  put  tc 
practical  use  in  the  schoolroom,  and  that  Uttle  is  usuall} 
expressed  in  very  general  terms.  No  book  heretofore  pub 
lished  describes  in  detail  the  putting  of  standardized  test: 
to  practical  use  in  a  concrete  situation  and  periodicallv 
over  a  period  of  years. 

The  above-mentioned  books  have  proved  very  valuabl< 
in  making  the  educational  public  acquainted  with  stand; 
ardized  tests  and  their  possibilities.  But  is  it  not  tim« 
that  we  had  something  definite  in  book  form  as  to  how  tb 
tests  are  proving  of  value,  or  otherwise,  in  the  hands  o 
teachers  and  administrators?  It  was  with  the  idea  ol 
starting  something  in  this  line  that  the  author  has  se  i 
down  in  this  book  his  own  experiences  with  standardizec 
tests  as  an  aid  in  school  supervision.  The  book  does  no 
claim  to  settle  any  of  the  great  problems  of  modern  edu 
cation.  It  merely  tells  how  standardized  tests  were  used  h 
an  attempt  to  solve  some  of  the  more  pressing  of  thes- 
problems  as  they  appeared.  In  it  we  tell  what  we  did,  wh; 
and  how  we  did  it,  and  the  results  obtained.  We  hav 
tried  to  tell  it  in  such  a  way  that  any  one  who  so  desire 
may  easily  follow  the  general  plan  with  modifications,  i 
necessary,  to  fit  his  own  particular  field  of  endeavor.  I 
is  hoped  that  the  book  may  prove  both  interesting  and  help 
ful  to  our  fellow  workers,  and  that  it  may  give  at  least 
little  added  momentum  to  the  great  movement  toward  ob' 
jective  measurement  of  "  classroom  products."    If  it  ac 


PREFACE  xi 

complishes  these  objects,  even  in  a  small  measure,  the  au- 
thor will  feel  amply  repaid  for  the  time  and  labor  involved 
in  presenting  his  experiences  for  publication. 

It  is  with  pleasure  and  gratitude  that  the  author  here  ac- 
knowledges his  indebtedness  to  Dr.  B.  R.  Buckingham  for 
kindly  advice  and  encouragement  during  the  preparation 
of  the  work,  for  many  helpful  suggestions,  for  his  sympa- 
thetic editing  of  the  manuscript,  and  finally,  for  the  Editor's 
Introduction. 

S.  S.  Brooks 

Winchester,  N.H.,  Jtdy,  1922 


nf 


CONTENTS 

Chapter  I.  Introduction ',      ,      .      i 

Chapter  II.  The  Practical  Situation 8 

Sizing-up  the  situation  —  Analyzing  the  situation. 

Chapter  III.  Getting  Teachers  to  Feel  the  Need  for 
Standardized  Tests i6 

The  first  meeting  —  The  second  meeting  —  The  third  meeting 

—  The  fourth  meeting. 

Chapter  IV.  Using  Standardized  Tests  for  Grading  Pur- 
poses     30 

Supervising  the  testing  —  Converting  scores  into  grades  — 
Devising  a  graph  card  —  The  meaning  of  the  graph  card  — 
Grading  the  pupils. 

Chapter  V.  Conditions  Revealed  by  the  Use  of  Standard- 
ized Tests 39 

The  graph  cards  described  —  Tendencies  shown  by  the  graphs 

—  The  search  for  causes;  over-emphasis  on  arithmetic  —  Other 
tendencies  —  The  writing  situation  —  Poor  results  in  reading, 
and  why  —  A  new  policy  as  to  reading. 

Chapter  VI.  Measuring  the  Progress  of  Pupils  by  Means 
of  Standardized  Tests 52 

Teachers'  judgments  of  progress  unsatisfactory  —  Standardized 
tests  used  to  measure  progress  —  The  graph  card  —  The  record 
of  a  child  of  average  mentality  —  The  record  of  a  bright  child  — 
The  record  of  a  dull  child  —  The  record  of  a  class. 

Chapter  VII.  Measuring   the   Efficiency   of   Teachers 
BY  Standardized  Tests 69 

Factors  in  teaching  ability  —  Measuring  teaching  efficiency  by 
results  —  Objections  of  teachers  to  rating  by  results  —  The 
objections  answered  —  The  plan  of  rating  teaching  —  First  illus- 
tration of  the  plan  —  Second  illustration  of  the  plan  —  Salary 
and  rating. 


xiv  CONTENTS 

Chapter  VIII.  Comparing    the    Efficiency    of    Special 
Teaching  Methods  by  Means  of  Standardized  Tests     .    82 

The  teacher  and  the  method  —  Eliminating  the  variables  —  Two 
ways  of  comparing  methods;  the  first  case  illustrated  —  An  ex- 
periment in  comparing  methods  —  The  second  case:  comparing 
methods  when  used  by  the  same  teacher  —  A  suggested  plan  of 
procedure  —  Need  of  testing  methods  by  results. 

Chapter  IX.  Some  Uses  for  Intelligence  Tests    ...    96 

Practical  notes  for  practical  purposes  —  Intelligence  tests  needed 
in  school:  faulty  judgments  of  teachers  —  The  fallacy  that  all 
pupils  can  make  satisfactory  progress  —  The  Binet-Simon  Intel- 
ligence Scale  —  Group  tests  of  intelligence  —  Our  original  pur- 
pose to  locate  the  mentally  defective  —  The  Otis  Test  —  The 
Haggerty  Tests  —  A  case  in  which  intelligence  testing  helped  — 
Another  case — A  menace  —  Border-line  cases  —  Intelligence 
tests  used  in  rating  teachers  —  Identifying  the  bright  pupils 

—  Special  opportunities  in  city  systems  —  Intelligence  tests 
for  grading  purposes  —  The  small  range  of  mental  ages  in  each 
grade  —  Mental  ages  of  pupils  in  each  grade  —  Grading  by 
mental  and  achievement  tests  substantially  the  same  —  A  pro- 
posed plan  of  grading  in  a  rural  school. 

Chapter  X.  Reaction  of  Teachers  and  Pupils  to  Stand- 
ardized Tests 124 

What  the  teachers  think  of  the  tests  —  What  the  pupils  think  of 
the  tests. 

Chapter  XI.  Reading  Aims  and  Methods 143 

Modification  of  methods  and  materials  is  part  of  a  testing  pro- 
gram —  Drill  in  oral  reading  does  not  ensure  silent-reading  abil- 
ity —  The  way  to  improve  silent  reading  is  to  teach  silent  read- 
ing —  Oral-reading  drill  hinders  good  reading  —  The  case  against 
oral  reading  —  Yet  oral  reading  has  its  value  —  Oral  reading  not 
necessary  for  beginners  —  When  to  begin  to  teach  oral  reading 

—  Why  silent  reading  should  be  taught  first  —  Silent  reading  as 
actually  taught  —  Merely  giving  children  books  to  read  is  not 
sufficient. 

Chapter  XII.  Silent  Reading  in  the  Lower  Grades    .      .159 

Must  develop  the  kind  of  ability  the  tests  measure  —  The  success 
of  the  plan  adopted  —  Reading  in  first  grade  —  Teaching  the 
first  words  —  Keeping  the  right  order  of  association  —  Teaching 


CONTENTS  XV 

sentences  —  The  use  of  pictures  —  Reading  from  books  —  Little 
good  material  available  —  An  example  of  usable  material  —  One 
way  of  using  such  material  —  A  second  method  —  A  third  method 

—  Second  readers  begin  in  the  last  half  of  the  first  year  —  The 
result  in  one  school  —  The  kind  of  material  needed  for  first-grade  . 
use  —  Reading  in  the  second  grade  —  Reading  in  the  third  grade. 

Chapter  XIII.  Reading  in  the  Upper  Grades         .      .      .193 

Reading  as  a  separate  subject  should  not  be  necessary  in  the  upper 
grades  —  Local  conditions  required  vigorous  action  —  The  plan 

—  Character  of  the  reading  material  —  The  books  mentioned  are 
merely  suggestive  —  Why  literature  is  not  adapted  for  silent- 
reading  drill  —  The  kind  of  material  needed  for  silent  reading. 
Examples  of  good  selections  for  silent  reading  —  Ways  of  using 
silent-reading  material. 

Chapter  XIV.  Teaching  Children  How  to  Study        .      .  234 

Children  do  not  know  how  to  study  —  Children  must  be  taught 
to  study  —  Poor  methods  prevail  —  Situations  ~;vhich  favor  good 
study  habits  must  be  provided  —  Good  silent-reading  ability 
essential  to  study  —  Good  silent-reading  methods  encourage 
good  study  habits  —  Some  examples  —  Habits  thus  developed 
carry  over  into  other  work. 

Chapter  XV.  Supervised  Study 246 

Three  types  of  activity  in  "studying"  —  DiflSculties  in  connec- 
tion with  supervised  study  —  Silent-reading  drill  ofifers  an  oppor- 
tunity for  supervised  study  —  The  question  method  is  especially 
advantageous  —  The  method  illustrated  —  Alternating  super- 
vised study  and  recitation  —  Another  way  of  conducting  super- 
vised study  —  Finding  the  topic  of  a  paragraph  —  Construction 
of  outlines  —  Collecting  material  as  a  phase  of  study. 

Index 275 


LIST  OF  TABLES 

Table  I  Distribution  of  the  Ratings  of  a  Sixth-Grade 
Arithmetic  Paper 17 

Table  II.  Distribution  of  the  Ratings  of  an  Eighth- 
Grade  History  Paper 18 

Table  III.  Weights  assigned  to  Twelve  History  Ques- 
tions according  to  Teachers'  Judgments       .      .      .      .22 

Table  IV.  Rank  of  History  Questions  in  Difficulty  based 
ON  Number  of  Times  missed  24 

Table  V.  Summary  of  Ranks  and  Values  for  Each  of 
Twelve  History  Questions 25 

Table  VI.  Record  of  L.  D 35 

Table  VII.  June  Scores  of  a  Fifth  Grade  in  Reading       .  75 

Table  VIII.  Grade  per  cents  on  Each  Test  —  Teacher  A  76 

Table  IX.  Grade  per  cents  on  Each  Test  —  Teacher  B    .  77 

Table  X.  Grade  per  cents  on  Each  Test  —  Teacher  C     .  78 

Table  XI.  Grade  per  cents  on  Each  Test  —  Teacher  D  .  79 

Table  XII.  Average  Scores  in  the  Woody  Scales       .      .  89 

Table  XIII.  Comparison  of  Mental  and  Chronological 
Ages  OF  Sixth-Grade  Pupils,  Tamworth  Schools      .      .115 

Table  XIV.  Mental  Ages  of  Pupils  in  Each  Grade    .      .117 

Table  XV.  Results  of  Mental  Tests  in  a  Selected  School  120 

Table  XVI.    Pupils    with   Mental   Ages   below   Eight 
Years 120 

Table  XVII.  Pupils  with  Mental  Ages  between  Eight 
AND  Nine 121 

Table  XVIII.  Pupils  with  Mental  Ages  between  Nine 
AND  Ten 121 

Table  XIX.  Pupils  with  Mental  Ages  between  Ten  and 
Eleven 122 


IMPROVING  SCHOOLS  BY 
STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

• 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

Education  is  gradually  becoming  less  of  a  custom  and 
more  of  a  science.  A  force  of  professionally  trained  edu- 
cators, imbued  with  a  determination  to  free  the  schools 
from  the  chains  of  mediaeval  traditions  in  subject-matter 
and  method,  and  with  an  ambition  to  apply  the  principles 
of  common  sense  to  education,  is  being  rapidly  built  up. 
The  development  of  modern  educational  psychology  is 
bringing  about  changes  of  management  and  method  that 
are  little  short  of  revolutionary.  The  ossifying  doctrine 
of  formal  discipline  and  a  multitude  of  other  hoary  tradi- 
tions have  been  proved  invalid  by  the  scientifically  con- 
trolled experiments  of  experts  in  the  psychology  of  learn- 
ing. Thus  the  very  foundations  have  been  knocked  from 
under  the  existing  educational  system,  leaving  it,  so  to 
speak,  very  much  up  in  the  air. 

But  if  these  experts  were  to  be  anything  more  than 
iconoclasts,  they  must  furnish  something  better  in  the 
way  of  teaching  aims  and  methods  to  replace  the  demol- 
ished idols  of  an  educational  world  whose  complacency 
they  had  sadly  ruffled.  Accordingly,  they  inaugurated  in 
some  quarters  experimental  schools  and  school  systems  — 
laboratories  for  the  compounding  of  educational  doctrines. 
While  still  very  young,  however,  the  new  movement  be- 
came seriously  afflicted  with  a  rash  of  faddism  due  to 


2  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

under-trained  but  over-enthusiastic  reformers  who  mis- 
took their  day-dreams  for  facts  of  proved  worth.  Having 
passed  through  this  period,  however,  the  movement 
began  to  steady  itself.  Earnest  seekers  after  the  truth 
early  came  to  realize  that  to  foist  half-baked  schemes  on 
an  ultra-conservative  public  would  in  the  end  merely 
breed  distrust  and  suspicion  of  all  new  ideas  in  education 
regardless  of  their  value.  Reformers  grew  more  cautious 
of  presenting  their  ideas  until  they  had  proved  their 
worth.  Local  school  men  and  women  also  became  more 
cautious  of  introducing  new  methods  until  those  methods 
had  been  successfully  tried  out  under  fairly  representa- 
tive conditions.  Thus  something  like  a  healthy  balance 
was  struck  between  faddism  and  conservatism. 

Among  the  more  recent  ideas  there  are  some  that  seem 
pregnant  with  tremendous  possibilities  for  the  improve- 
ment of  educational  procedure.  The  most  far-reaching 
in  its  beneficial  possibilities  seems  to  me  to  be  the  idea  of 
measuring  the  results  of  teaching  and  the  intelligence  of 
school  children  by  means  of  standardized  tests.  Of  large 
importance  also  are:  "The  Socialized  Recitation," 
"  Supervised  Study,"  "  Teaching  Children  How  to 
Study,"  "The  Project-Problem  Method  in  Teaching," 
and  the  change  of  emphasis  from  oral  to  silent  reading. 
All  these  things  are  rich  with  promise  of  greater  efiiciency 
in  education.  But  although  all  the  above-mentioned 
ideas  have  proved  successful,  when  carried  out  by  trained 
men  and  women  full  of  enthusiasm  and  thoroughly  under- 
standing the  psychological  principles  upon  which  the  ideas 
were  based,  nevertheless,  when  the  carrying-out  of  these 
same  ideas  has  been  attempted  by  persons  lacking  in 
sympathy  and  full  understanding  of  the  principles,  aims, 
and  methods  involved,  they  have  often  been  far  from 
successful. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

Superintendents  and  teachers  who  condemn  these  ideas, 
after  proving  to  their  own  satisfaction  that  they  are  worth- 
less, remind  me  of  the  first  farmer  in  the  town  of  my  boy- 
hood to  purchase  a  mowing  machine.  For  a  great  many 
years  this  man  had  mowed  his  many  rough  and  rather 
rocky  acres  by  hand  with  the  help  of  a  large  crew  of  hired 
men.  But  one  spring  the  mowing-machine  agent  appeared 
in  our  town  and  as  a  result,  by  the  time  hay  was  ready  to 
be  cut,  the  farmer  found  himself  possessed  of  a  brand-new 
mowing  machine,  resplendent  in  green,  yellow,  and  red. 
The  next  morning  he  started  out  to  mow  the  "  back  field." 
Truly  his  trials  that  day  were  many.  And  when  the 
machine,  unable  to  stand  any  more  of  his  inexpert  han- 
dling, broke  down  late  in  the  afternoon,  he  had  succeeded 
in  getting  over  only  about  as  much  ground  as  one  good 
man  with  scythe  and  snath  could  have  mowed  in  the  same 
length  of  time.  And  what  an  untidy- looking  job  it  was! 
The  next  day  the  farmer  started  his  old  crew  to  mowing 
by  hand.  No  more  of  that  mowing  machine  for  him.  He 
could  do  more  and  better  work  in  a  day  alone  than  could 
a  man  with  a  pair  of  horses  and  a  mowing  machine.  The 
mowing  machine  was  a  failure.  He  knew  because  he  had 
tried  it.  But  did  this  farmer's  experience  with  his  new 
mowing  machine  prove  the  failure  of  the  machine  or  the 
failure  of  the  man?  The  mowing  machine,  we  know,  will 
do  good  and  rapid  work  in  astonishingly  rough  and  rocky 
ground  when  guided  by  a  practiced  hand. 

And  so  it  is  with  new  methods  and  ideas  in  education. 
The  socialized  recitation  can  easily  result  in  chaos  in  the 
hands  of  weak  teachers.  Supervised  study  can  become 
the  sepulcher  of  all  energy  and  initiative  on  the  part  of 
pupils  if  improperly  conducted.  Teaching  children  how 
to  study  becomes  a  farce  when  attempted  by  teachers  who 
do  not  -themselves  know  how  to  study  efficiently.     And 


4  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

how  many  of  them  do  know  how  to  study  to  the  best 
advantage?  As  for  silent-reading  —  well,  some  of  its 
ardent  exponents  would  get  the  surprise  of  their  lives  if 
they  sent  out  questionnaires  to  all  the  teachers  of  so-called 
silent-reading  asking  them  to  explain  their  conception  of 
silent-reading  drill. 

For  example,  I  visited  a  village  school  not  long  ago, 
where,  the  superintendent  told  me,  one  of  his  best  teachers 
was  working  out  some  of  the  "  new  ideas."  I  found  the 
teacher  industriously  correcting  papers  at  her  desk.  The 
room  was  very  quiet  and  orderly,  and  every  child  was  busy. 

"Do  you  teach  silent-reading  here?"  I  asked,  after 
introducing  myself. 

"  Oh,  yes!  That  is  what  we  are  doing  now.  We  have 
silent-reading  drill  for  a  whole  hour  every  afternoon." 

"  And  is  that  all  the  silent-reading  drill  they  get?" 

She  looked  up  in  surprise.  "  Why,  yes,  that  seems  to 
be  as  much  time  as  we  can  spare  without  neglecting  the 
other  work.     The  pupils  enjoy  it  very  much,"  she  added. 

And  why  should  n't  they  enjoy  it?  The  school  was  well 
supplied  with  children's  story-books  and  for  a  whole  hour 
every  afternoon  the  pupils  were  permitted  to  forget  the 
serious  affairs  of  life  and  to  dawdle  over  story-books  with- 
out aim  or  purpose.  Was  this  efficient  silent-reading 
drill,  or  was  it  largely  a  waste  of  time  and  money? 

Now  the  moral  of  all  this  is  that  neither  a  machine  nor 
an  educational  method  should  be  condemned  as  worthless 
because  it  fails  in  unpracticed  hands.  The  successful 
working-out  of  any  of  the  things  mentioned  above  (espe- 
cially in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  about  them) 
demands  energy,  initiative,  industry,  enthusiasm,  and  a 
fairly  complete  understanding  of  the  psychological  princi- 
ples involved  together  with  ability  to  apply  them.  The 
form  of  a  method  without  its  spirit  will  not  ensure  success 


INTRODUCTION  5 

Before  introducing  a  new  mode  of  procedure  into  a 
school  or  school  system,  superintendents  and  teachers 
should  be  sure  that  they  know  what  they  are  going  to  try 
to  do,  why  they  are  going  to  try  to  do  it,  and  what  others 
have  done  along  the  same  line.  In  addition  they  should 
have  a  definite  plan  as  to  how  they  expect  to  do  it.  This 
plan  may  have  to  be  changed  or  modified  several  times 
before  results  are  satisfactory,  but  nevertheless,  some 
definite  plan  should  be  provided  at  the  start. 

For  information  as  to  what  others  have  dorie  one  must 
have  recourse  to  educational  books  and  periodicals. 
Much  has  been  written,  in  one  form  or  another,  concerning 
supervised  study,  teaching  children  how  to  study,  silent- 
reading,  and  standardized  tests.  Most  of  these  writings, 
however,  deal  with  generalities.  Now,  either  through 
lack  of  inherent  ability  or  through  lack  of  proper  training, 
it  is  undoubtedly  hard  for  most  people  to  apply  general 
principles  to  specific  cases;  to  take  a  suggested  plan,  think 
out  the  details,  and  put  the  plan  into  successful  operation. 
This  is  the  reason  for  such  a  large  crop  of  failures  when  a 
superintendent  calls  his  teachers  together,  tells  them  what 
he  wants  done,  explains  the  general  principles  of  the  new 
plan,  and  leaves  them  to  work  out  the  details  and  produce 
results. 

The  research  men  are  giving  us  some  splendid  books  as  a 
result  of  their  years  of  study  and  painstaking  experiment. 
Their  statements  of  procedure  are,  for  the  most  part, 
sound  in  theory;  and  many  of  them  have  been  proved  by 
practice  —  especially  when  conditions  were  favorable. 
But  these  general  principles,  when  applied  under  widely 
different  and  often  adverse  conditions,  do  not  always  work 
well.  There  are,  however,  some  school  people  who  are 
not  easily  discouraged,  who  take  the  trouble  to  make  a 
careful  study  of  the  causes  of  failure,  and  who  modify 


6  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

either  the  plan  or  the  local  conditions  or  both;  and  it  is  they 
who  put  the  results  of  research  into  successful  operation. 

Would  it  not,  therefore,  be  well  if  we  had  more  printed 
records  direct  from  the  actual  workers  in  the  field  —  from 
the  men  and  women  at  the  head  of  local  schools  and  school 
systems  and  from  their  teachers?  Even  if  these  records 
were  not  of  high  technical  or  literary  merit,  they  would 
tell  Just  what  teachers  and  superintendents  have  tried  to 
do,  and  why  and  how  they  have  tried  to  do  it,  together 
with  the  results  achieved.  The  story  might  not  always  be 
one  of  shining  success,  but  could  it  not  be  valuable  to 
fellow  workers  for  all  that?  If  we  are  truly  wise,  we  may 
often  learn  success  from  others'  failures.  Most  of  us 
profit  by  reading  about  the  experiences  of  others  in  our 
own  line  of  work,  even  though  we  are  sometimes  foolish 
enough  to  think  we  have  nothing  more  to  learn. 

Hence  the  excuse  for  this  book.  It  tries  to  tell  in  a 
simple  way  how  standardized  tests  and  scales  were  used 
to  improve  the  schools  in  a  newly  organized  rural-school 
district  in  New  Hampshire  under  conditions  that  were,  to 
say  the  least,  discouraging.  In  a  way  it  is  story.  It  is 
the  story  of  how  a  corps  of  faithful,  hard-working,  but 
mostly  untrained  teachers,  with  the  aid  of  an  inexperienced 
superintendent,  put  standardized  tests  and  measurements 
to  practical  use  throughout  a  school  system  to  the  con- 
siderable advantage  of  all  concerned;  of  how  also,  in  con- 
nection with  the  use  of  the  tests,  they  solved,  with  at 
least  some  satisfaction  to  themselves,  the  problems  of 
efficient  silent-reading  drill,  supervised  study,  and  teach- 
ing children  how  to  study,  in  one- teacher  rural  schools. 
It  is  not  a  story  of  complete  and  unqualified  success;  but 
I  have  endeavored  to  make  it  a  faithful,  readable,  and 
understandable  account  of  what  was  done,  of  why  and 
how  it  was  done,  and  of  the  results  achieved. 


INTRODUCriON  7 

The  book  is  addressed  to  teachers  and  superintendents, 
both  urban  and  rural.  The  principles  of  procedure  set 
forth  can  be  applied  in  a  single  school  or  a  whole  school 
district,  in  large  schools  or  small,  in  city  or  country.  The 
methods  used  have  been  tried  out  under  about  as  unfavor- 
able conditions  as  could  be  found  anywhere.  Although 
the  actual  experiments  have  been  carried  on  in  a  purely 
rural  district,  I  can  conceive  of  no  reason  why  the  same 
principles  cannot  be  applied  with  even  greater  facility, 
and  the  methods  used  to  even  greater  advantage  in  town 
and  city  schools.  Many  of  the  obstacles  that  face  the 
rural  superintendent  in  attempting  such  a  testing  program 
as  is  here  described  are  largely  absent  in  the  city.  Better- 
trained  teachers  are  available;  the  teaching  force  is  more 
stable;  and  it  is  much  easier  to  get  the  teachers  together 
for  frequent  meetings. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  PRACTICAL  SITUATION] 

A  SUPERVISORY  district  containing  twenty-six  rural,  un- 
graded one-room  schools  with  teachers  for  the  most  part 
inexperienced  or  untrained,  a  majority  of  whom  had  never 
worked  under  a  superintendent  before  —  this  was  the 
opportunity  that  fell  to  my  lot  when  I  became  a  New 
Hampshire  superintendent  under  the  new  law  effective 
September  i,  1919.  It  was  my  first  experience  as  a  super- 
intendent. Truly  the  district  was  "  virgin  soil "  as  a 
member  of  the  State  Department  remarked  to  me  when 
I  took  the  position. 

SiziNG-up  THE  Situation 

The  first  two  or  three  weeks  were  spent  in  traveling  about 
the  district  getting  acquainted  with  the  teachers  and 
sizing-up  the  situation.  Most  of  the  schools  had  already 
begun,  the  teachers  having  been  hired  by  the  local  school 
boards  as  in  the  past.  I  found  that  three  of  the  teachers 
were  normal-school  graduates,  and  that  two  had  attended 
one  summer  school;  but  the  others  had  no  professional 
training  whatever.  Several  had  not  attended  school 
beyond  the  eighth  grade,  but  had  taught  from  ten  to 
twenty-eight  years  in  the  same  school.  Three  were  in- 
experienced high-school  graduates  in  their  teens.  Fifty 
per  cent  of  all  the  teachers  had  never  seen  a  professional 
book  or  magazine  and  did  not  know  where  to  obtain  one. 
All  this,  of  course,  had  resulted  in  an  ingrowing  provin- 
cialism which  could  not  but  have  a  disastrously  narrowing 
effect  on  their  teaching.    They  were  imitators  of  imitators. 


THE  PRACTICAL  SITUATION  9 

Their  methods  were  in  imitation  of  the  teachers  who  had 
taught  them  and  who,  in  their  turn,  had  imitated  their 
own  teachers.  The  results  were  the  use  of  methods  and 
texts  so  archaic  as  to  be  amusing  if  they  had  not  been  at 
the  same  time  such  a  sad  commentary  on  our  boasted 
educational  system. 

Most  of  the  textbooks  were  sadly  out  of  date.  Arithme- 
tics, geographies,  grammars,  and  even  histories  published 
in  the  eighties  were  in  daily  use.  One  of  the  local  com- 
mittees insisted  that  they  must  be  good  books  or  they 
would  not  have  worn  so  long.  Of  course  the  books  were 
all  based  on  the  defunct  doctrine  of  formal  discipline  and 
showed  little  of  the  psychological  methods  of  presenting 
material  which  are  the  basis  of  modern  educational  pro- 
cedure. The  idea  seemed  to  be  that  an  arithmetic  is  an 
arithmetic,  and  that  a  geography  is  a  geography,  one  book 
being  as  good  as  another  so  long  as  nothing  pertaining  to 
the  subject  is  omitted  and  the  leaves  are  all  present. 

I  have  emphasized  the  teaching  and  textbook  situations 
because  I  consider  them  the  most  important  factors. 
I  shall  mention  a  few  other  points  briefly.  As  for  the 
schoolhouses,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  most  of  them  were 
typical  New  England  rural-school  buildings  of  ancient 
vintage,  modeled  variously  (according  to  the  ideas  of  their 
insiigatars) ,  upon  churches,  town  halls,  barns,  and  in  some 
cases  it  would  almost  seem,  upon  pigpens.  They  were 
small,  dirty,  poorly  heated,  lighted,  and  ventilated,  and  in 
short  generally  unsanitary  and  ill-suited  to  their  purpose. 
As  to  the  organization  of  the  schools,  as  I  have  already 
intimated,  no  attempt  had  ever  been  made  to  grade  them. 
Another  important  factor  in  the  situation  was  the  attitude 
of  the  communities  toward  expert  supervision.  Three  of 
the  four  towns  in  the  district  had  always  opposed  such 
supervision  as  long  as  it  was  optional  and  were  not  in- 


lo  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

clined  to  submit  gracefully  when,  according  to  the  pro- 
\isions  of  the  new  law,  it  became  compulsory.  Such  were 
the  general  conditions  as  revealed  by  my  preliminary 
survey.    ^ . 

However,  there  were  three  bright  spots  in  the  general 
darkness  of  the  situation.  First,  the  splendid  new  State 
school  law  which  made  the  superintendent  a  State  ojB&cial 
with  a  pretty  free  hand  and  which  provided  liberal  State 
aid  for  rural  schools,  where  it  might  be  necessary,  to  keep 
them  up  to  the  required  minimum  standards.  Secondly, 
intelligent  school  boards  willing  to  cooperate.  And  last, 
my  own  professional  equipment  which  included  a  pretty 
thorough  training  in  educational  measurements  and  an 
earlier  experience  in  the  teaching  of  rural  schools.  Ac- 
cordingly, I  tackled  the  proposition  determined  to  show 
what  scientific  method  in  education,  as  I  understood  it, 
could  do  for  rural  schools  if  it  had  the  chance. 

Analyzing  the  Situation 

The  following  week  was  spent  in  analyzing  the  conditions 
found  to  exist  and  in  deciding  upon  the  most  efiicient  way 
to  bring  order  out  of  chaos.  As  a  result  of  this  analysis  a 
number  of  definite  problems  seemed  to  stand  out  clearly 
demanding  early  attention.  From  among  these  problems 
I  shall  select,  for  present  discussion,  only  those,  in  the 
solution  of  which,  as  it  seemed  to  me,  standardized  tests 
and  scales  could  be  used  to  good  advantage. 

Problem  i.  To  grade  the  schools  fairly  and  accurately. 
Getting  the  schools  graded  in  order  to  start  the  pupils 
right  for  their  year's  work  was  of  course  the  most  urgent 
problem.  It  would  have  been  a  comparatively  simple 
matter  to  grade  them  arbitrarily  on  the  basis  of  the  teachers' 
judgments.  But  there  are  serious  objections  to  this 
method  even  as  a  beginning,  especially  when  the  teacher 


THE  PRACTICAL  SITUATION  ii 

is  new  to  the  school.  If,  for  example,  children  are  placed 
in  grades  lower  than  their  parents  think  they  ought  to  be, 
there  are  bound  to  be  strenuous  objections  from  some  of 
these  parents,  and  the  only  evidence  one  has  to  offer  is  that 
the  teacher  thought  the  children  ought  to  be  placed  in 
those  grades.  Did  you  never  hear  this  line  of  talk  from 
an  irate  parent?  "  My  John  is  just  as  smart  as  Mrs. 
Smith's  Henry  and  he  ought  to  be  in  the  same  class  or 
above.  It's  a  plain  case  of  showing  partiaHty.  I  just 
won't  stand  it!" 

It  is  not  by  any  means  easy  in  such  cases  to  prove  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  parent  that  the  teacher  had  a  sound 
basis  for  her  judgment.  And  the  fact  is  that  she  did  not 
have  a  sound  basis.  How  did  she  know  just  what  knowl- 
edge or  ability  a  child  should  exhibit  in  order  to  belong  in  a 
certain  grade?  What  standards  of  achievement  did  she 
have  for  the  different  grades  besides  her  own  arbitrary 
judgment? 

Giving  ordinary  tests  for  grading  purposes  is  also  in- 
accurate and  unfair,  because  such  tests  are  devised  by  the 
teacher  or  superintendent  and  hence  represent  merely  the 
judgment  of  one  of  them  as  to  what  he  or  she  thinks  a 
child  ought  to  know  in  order  to  be  placed  in  a  certain  grade. 

Worse  than  all  else,  the  children  themselves  are  apt  to 
become  discouraged,  not  understanding  wherein  they  have 
failed,  and  being  at  a  loss  as  to  just  what  they  are  expected 
to  achieve.  Even  the  superintendent  and  teachers,  if 
they  are  conscientious,  are  not  satisfied  because  they  can- 
not feel  sure  that  injustice  has  not  been  done.  Retarding 
a  child  without  good  reason,  thus  robbing  him  of  a  year  of 
his  time,  is  a  serious  matter,  at  least  for  the  child. 

What  method  of  grading,  then,  could  be  found  which 
would  be  fair  to  all  concerned?  After  casting  about  for 
some  time  for  a  solution  to  tliis  problem,  it  suddenly  oc- 


12  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

curred  to  me  that  standardized  tests  would  help  me  out  of 
my  difficulty.  Did  they  not  offer  definite  standards  of 
achievement  for  each  grade?  And  those  standards  were 
not  based  on  an  unattainable  one  hundred  per  cent  nor 
upon  the  opinions  of  dogmatic  educators  as  to  what  a  child 
ought  to  know  at  the  end  of  a  certain  grade.  They  were 
experimentally  derived  and  based  upon  the  amount  of 
work  that  normal  children  are  actually  doing  in  the  differ- 
ent grades  throughout  the  whole  country  and  not  upon 
the  amount  of  work  somebody  thinks  they  ought  to  do. 

By  giving  these  tests  in  all  my  schools  I  thought  I  could 
determine  just  where  each  child  belonged  on  the  educa- 
tional ladder.  The  process  would  be  roughly  comparable 
to  measuring  a  large  number  of  sticks  of  various  lengths 
by  means  of  a  tape  measure  sorting  them  into  eight  piles, 
each  pile  containing  sticks  of  about  the  same  length. 
Then,  when  angry  parents  wanted  to  know  why  their 
children  were  graded  so  low,  I  could  show  them.  The 
children  themselves  could  be  made  to  see  wherein  they  had 
fallen  below  standard  and  what  they  would  have  to  do 
to  come  up  to  the  standard.  Both  superintendent  and 
teachers  would  feel  that  they  were  on  solid  ground.  Surely 
I  needed  standardized  tests  the  first  thing. 

Having  reached  this  conclusion,  I  immediately  ordered 
all  the  tests  and  scales  I  knew  of  that  were  sufficiently  well 
standardized  for  my  purpose.  They  covered  the  following 
subjects:  arithmetic,  silent  and  oral  reading,  spelling, 
writing,  geography,  history,  and  English  language.* 

Problem  2.  How  to  measure  the  progress  of  pupils. 
Having  settled  upon  how  to  do  the  preliminary  grading, 

•  For  those  who  do  not  know  standardized  tests  and  want  to  get  acquainted, 
I  recommend  for  a  beginning  the  purchase  of  Measuring  the  Results  of  Teaching  by 
Monroe,  and  Educational  Tests  arid  Measurements  by  Monroe,  De  Voss,  and  Kelly. 
Both  books  describe  the  best  tests  and  their  uses  and  the  former  tells  where  to 
obtain  them.    These  books  are  published  by  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


'  THE  PRACTICAL  SITUATION  13 

the  next  problem  was  to  find  a  just  method  of  measuring 
the  progress  of  pupils  for  promotion  purposes.  The  same 
objections  to  teachers'  tests  hold  good  here  as  were  noted 
in  discussing  the  previous  problem. 

This  problem  involved,  obviously,  the  finding  of  a 
satisfactory  system  of ,  marking.  It  has  been  proved  be- 
yond doubt  that  ordinary  teachers'  marks  are  unfair, 
inaccurate,  and  generally  unsatisfactory  as  a  means  of 
measuring  progress  or  as  a  basis  for  promotion. 

In  measuring  the  progress  of  pupils,  standardized  tests 
must  surely  find  their  widest  field  of  usefulness.  Here  the 
process  can  be  compared  to  standing  a  ten-foot  measuring 
rod  beside  a  young  tree  when  it  is  a  foot  high  and  noting 
its  growth  in  height.  When  it  has  added  another  twelve 
inches  it  belongs  in  the  two-foot  class.  Twelve  inches 
more  and  it  is  promoted  to  the  three-foot  class,  and  so  on. 
It  is  entirely  possible  to  devise  a  satisfactory  system  of 
marking,  with  the  aid  of  such  tests,  as  will  be  explained 
later  on. 

Some  of  the  teachers  thought  that  the  new  State  pro- 
gram of  studies  for  elementary  schools  would  be  a  sufficient 
guide  for  promotion  purposes.  This  program  is  thoroughly 
practical  and  up-to-date.  But  it  offers  no  definite,  ob- 
jective standards  of  achievement  from  grade  to  grade. 
Therefore  it  is  not  a  satisfactory  tool  with  which  to  meas- 
ure the  progress  of  pupils  and  to  determine  when  they  are 
ready  for  promotion.  It  is  true  that  a  printed  program 
of  studies  specifies  the  subject-matter  to  be  covered  by 
each  grade,  but  it  is  left  entirely  to  the  judgment  of  the 
teacher  as  to  when  that  subject-matter  is  covered  satis- 
factorily. The  ground  may  be  gone  over  more  or  less 
thoroughly  and  with  very  unequal  results  according  to 
the  methods  and  arbitrary  standards  of  the  individual 
teacher.     Hence,  it  is  obvious  that  programs  of  study 


14  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

cannot  take  the  place  of  standardized  tests  that  are  even 
fairly  objective. 

Problem  3.    How  to  measure  the  ability  of  teachers. 

One  of  the  greatest  needs  of  superintendents  is  a  method 
of  measuring  the  ability  of  teachers  that  will  be  accurate 
and  fair  to  all  concerned  —  a  metliod  that  will  not  leave 
the  superintendent  open  to  the  charge  of  favoritism  or  poor 
Judgment  —  a  method  that  will  satisfy  a  teacher  who  has 
been  rated  something  less  than  "  excellent "  that  her 
shortcomings  are  real  and  not  hallucinations  in  the  mind 
of  the  superintendent  due  to  his  personal  dislikes  and 
prejudices. 

What  is  wanted  is  concrete  evidence  of  a  teacher's 
ability  or  lack  of  ability  that  will  allay  carping  criticism 
from  whatever  source.  It  is  decidedly  neither  accurate 
nor  fair  to  estimate  a  teacher's  ability  solely  by  observa- 
tion made  by  the  superintendent  during  his  visits  to  the 
classroom.  It  is  not  fair  because  (a)  such  observations 
do  not  furnish  a  sound  basis  for  Judgment;  (i)  the  superin- 
tendent's ophiions  are  quite  apt  to  be  colored  by  personal 
prejudices  toward  an  individual  teacher  or  her  methods; 
(c)  classes  often  show  at  their  worst  in  the  presence  of 
visitors;  (d)  even  the  teacher  may  fail  to  do  herself  Justice 
under  the  critical  eye  of  the  superintendent.  It  is  inac- 
curate for  all  the  reasons  noted  above  and  because  (a) 
some  teachers  do  excellent  work  when  the  superintendent 
is  present  and  shirk  ail  the  rest  of  the  time,  and  (b)  if  such 
teachers  do  their  own  testing,  even  the  results  may  be 
made  falsely  to  appear  satisfactory. 

Provided  a  teacher  is  of  good  moral  character  with  high 
ideals  and  a  fairly  pleasant  personality,  her  further  de- 
sirability as  a  teacher  is  measurerl  by  the  results  she  gets 
as  determined  by  the  progress  of  the  pupils  when  such 
progress  is  objectively  measm-ed.     After  all,  it  is  results 


THE  PRACTICAL  SITUATION  15 

we  are  after,  primarily.  Hence,  the  standardized  tests 
measure  objectively  both  the  progress  of  the  pupils  and  the 
ability  of  the  teacher  at  one  and  the  same  time. 

Problem  4.  To  find  a  practical  method  of  supervising 
study  and  of  teaching  how  to  study.  This  may  seem  like  a 
large  contract  for  the  one-teacher  rural  school  with  its 
crowded  curriculum,  but  I  shall  try  to  show  that  it  can  be 
successfully  worked  out  by  using  proper  methods  of  study 
supplemented  by  Judicious  use  of  the  standardized  educa- 
tional tests  and  measurements. 

This  chapter  merely  presents  some  of  the  problems  con- 
fronting me  in  my  new  work  together  with  some  plans 
for  their  solution  and  reasons  therefor.  The  following 
chapters  will  describe  in  detail  the  working-out  of  these 
plans  and  the  results  achieved. 


CHAPTER  III 

GETTING  TEACHERS  TO  FEEL  THE  NEED 
FOR  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Having  concluded  that  standardized  tests  would  greatly 
help  me  under  the  conditions  set  forth  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  I  next  attacked  the  problem  of  securing  the  whole- 
hearted cooperation  of  my  teachers  in  their  use.  The 
psychology  of  interest  teaches  us  that  a  person's  best 
efforts  are  called  forth  only  when  he  feels  a  real  need.  So 
I  set  myself  to  arouse  in  my  teachers  an  enthusiastic 
interest  by  bringing  them  to  feel  a  real  need  for  definite 
standards  of  accomplishment  in  school  work.  In  order  to 
make  them  feel  this  need  deeply,  something  more  than 
merely  telling  them  of  the  tests  and  their  uses  was  neces- 
sary. They  must  be  made  to  realize  the  inadequacy  of 
ordinary  methods  of  measuring  the  results  of  teaching. 

Accordingly,  I  called  a  series  of  teachers'  meetings  on 
four  consecutive  Saturday  afternoons.  In  a  district  more 
than  twenty  miles  square  it  is  not  easy  to  get  all  the 
teachers  together  at  one  place.  I  succeeded,  however,  in 
persuading  two  automobile  owners  in  each  town  to  take 
the  teachers  to  these  four  meetings  at  a  price  that  would 
little  more  than  pay  for  the  gasoline  consumed.  Whether 
or  not  this  scheme  could  be  worked  in  other  districts  would 
depend,  of  course,  on  the  character  of  the  automobile 
owners  and  the  success  of  the  superintendent  in  convincing 
them  that  they  ought  to  be  willing  to  do  it  in  an  emergency 
and  for  the  welfare  of  the  schools. 


THE  COOPERATION  OF  TEACHERS         17 

The  First  Meeting 

At  the  first  meeting  I  outlined  briefly  what  I  wanted  to  do 
and  why,  and  then  suggested  that  we  try  some  practical 
experiments.  The  first  experiment  was  intended  to  prove 
the  inaccuracy  of  teachers'  marks  in  general.  A  few  days 
before,  I  had  selected  the  paper  turned  in  by  a  sixth-grade 
pupil  in  a  regular  arithmetic  test  given  by  one  of  the 
teachers.  This  test  contained  the  usual  ten  problems  and 
was  supposed  to  measure  knowledge  of  percentage.  A 
hektographed  copy  of  the  pupil's  paper  was  given  out  to 
each  of  the  twenty-four  teachers.  Then,  without  warning 
them  of  my  purpose  or  of  what  the  results  were  apt  to  be, 
I  asked  them  to  correct  the  paper  and  mark  it  on  a  per- 
centage basis.  When  all  had  finished,  the  papers  were 
collected  and  I  at  once  tabulated  the  ratings  on  the  black- 
board with  the  result  shown  in  Table  I. 

TABLE  I.    DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RATINGS  OF  A  SIXTH- 
GRADE  ARITHMETIC  PAPER 


Ratings 

Frequency 

90-^4 

3 

85-89 

8 

80-84 

6 

7S-79 

:  4 

70-74 

f  a 

65-69 

'     X 

Total  24 

The  effect  was  striking.  Nearly  everybody  had  caught 
the  idea  and  the  expressions  on  the  various  faces  showed 
me  that  there  was  no  need  of  rubbing  it  in  by  pointing 
out  the  moral.  Aroused  interest  was  evident  as  I  passed 
the  papers  back  with  the  suggestion  that  we  analyze  the 
methods  of  marking  to  discover  the  factors  which  pro- 
duced such  evident  lack  of  agreement.  We  finally  agreed 
on  the  following  points: 


1 8  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

1.  Most  of  the  teachers  had  aimed  to  mark  the  pupil's  re- 
sponse to  a  problem  entirely  wrong  if  the  answer  was 
wrong,  without  regard  to  correctness  of  principle. 

2.  Some  gave  half  credit  if  the  principle  was  right  and  the 
answer  wrong. 

3.  The  majority  marked  answers  entirely  wrong  if  a  decimal 
point  was  omitted  or  misplaced,  while  some  gave  vary- 
ing degrees  of  credit,  if  the  digits  of  the  answer  were  correct 
and  the  decimal  point  misplaced  or  omitted. 

4.  A  few  had  assigned  weights  to  the  various  problems  on 
the  basis  of  their  own  judgments  with  far  from  uniform 
results.  This  factor  actually  seemed  to  have  been  the 
one  which  had  produced  the  most  extreme  variations  in 
the  marking. 

Then  some  one  suggested  that  we  try  it  again  and  see  if 
we  could  not  do  better.  Several  others  seconded  the  idea, 
so  I  passed  around  copies  of  an  eighth-grade  pupil's  his- 
tory paper.  Never  did  teachers  work  more  seriously  than 
did  those  teachers  for  the  next  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes. 
The  papers  were  then  collected  and  the  marks  tabulated 
as  before  with  the  results  shown  in  Table  II. 

TABLE  n.    DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RATINGS  OF  AN  EIGHTH- 
GRADE  HISTORY  PAPER 


Palings 

Frequency 

90-94 
85-89 
80-84 

I 

3 
10 

75-79 

S 

70-74 
65-69 

2 
3 

Total  24 


Then  followed  a  lively  discussion,  as  a  result  of  which 
the  following  important  conclusions  were  unanimously 
agreed  upon; 


THE  COOPERATION  OF  TEACHERS         19 

1 .  That  teachers'  marks  are  ordinarily  very  apt  to  be  inaccu- 
rate. 

2.  That,  due  to  the  personal  standards  of  the  teacher  and  to 
individual  marldng  systems,  the  work  of  the  same  child 
may  be  graded  very  high  by  one  teacher  and  very  low 

'    by  another. 

3.  That  such  irresponsible  rating  may  work  serious  injustice 
to  tlie  children. 

4.  That  the  work  of  different  schools  cannot  be  accurately 
compared  under  such  conditions. 

And  best  of  all,  these  conclusions  were  mostly  arrived 
at  by  the  teachers  themselves  with  the  help  of  a  few  lead- 
ing questions  on  my  part.  Was  it  worth  while?  Would 
those  teachers  ever  again  correct  test  papers  with  the  same 
self-satisfied  assurance  of  the  infallible  justice  of  their 
marks?  Would  they  ever  again  feel  fully  justified  in 
retarding  a  pupil  because  he  had  been  given  a  mark  of  68 
when  the  passing  mark  was  70? 

It  was  now  time  to  bring  the  meeting  to  a  close.  Several 
wanted  to  know  what  better  method  of  marking  could  be 
found.  I  advised  all  who  were  interested  in  solving  the 
problem  to  order  at  once  Monroe's  book,  Measuring  the 
Results  of  Teaching,^  and  to  think  the  matter  over  until 
our  next  meeting. 

The  Second  Meeting 

In  preparation  for  the  next  meeting  I  made  a  list  of  twelve 
history  questions  on  the  events  leading  up  to  the  American 
Revolution.    The  questions  were  as  follows: 

1 .  How  were  laws  made  for  the  colonics? 

2.  What  sort  of  governments  had  the  colonies? 

3.  How  was  the  commerce  of  the  colonies  regulated? 

>  Monroe,  Walter  S.,  Measuring  the  Results  of  Teaching-  Houghton  Miflain 
Company. 


20 


STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


What  kind  of  a  king  was  George  III? 

What  was  the  Stamp  Act? 

What  were  the  objections  to  it? 

What  was  the  Stamp  Act  Congress  and  what  did  it  do? 

How  did  the  British  try  to  keep  the  colonists  in  order? 

What  friends  had  the  colonists  in  Great  Britain? 

10.  What  was  the  Act  of  Association? 

11.  How  was  it  enforced? 

12.  Distinguish  between  the  real  and  the  apparent  reasons  for 
the  Revolution. 

When  we  were  again  assembled  I  passed  two  copies  of 
this  list  to  each  teacher  with  the  request  that  they  rank 
the  questions  one,  two,  three,  etc.,  in  the  order  of  their 
difficulty  beginning  with  the  easiest,  and  that  they  write 
these  ranks  opposite  the  questions  on  one  of  the  papers 
which  they  had  received.  When  they  had  finished,  I 
asked  each  teacher  to  read  the  ranks  she  had  assigned  to 
the  questions  beginning  with  question  one,  while  I  tabu- 
lated them  on  the  board  in  such  a  way  that  vertical  col- 
umns would  show  the  various  ranks  assigned  to  the  same 
question  and  horizontal  rows  the  ranks  assigned  to  all  the 
questions  by  each  teacher.  I  regret  that  I  have  lost  my 
copy  of  the  original  table,  but  the  general  arrangement 
(for  four  teachers  only)  is  shown  below  without  the  correct 
figures. 


Teachers 

Rank  assigned  to  each  indicated  question 

I 

2 

3 

2 
II 

8 

12 

4 

7 
3 
3 
4 

5 

9 
9 

lO 

6 

6 

12 
lO 

4 
9 

7 

3 

4 

7 

II 

8 

8 
6 
I 

7 

9 

5 

12 

6 
8 

lO 

I 

S 
II 

2 

11 

lO 

8 
9 

12 

13 

A 

6 

2 

5 

I 

4 
7 

12 
S 

II 

B 

I 

C 

2 

D 

3 

THE  COOPERATION  OF  TEACHERS         21 

The  tabulation,  which  I  had  made  on  the  blackboard, 
showed  such  wide  variations  in  the  ranks  assigned  to  the 
same  question  by  different  teachers,  that  a  lively  interest 
was  aroused.  In  the  ensuing  discussion  further  conclu- 
sions were  reached  which  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 

1.  That  if  a  test  is  to  measure  accurately  a  pupil's  knowledge  of 
the  ground  covered,  the  questions  must  be  so  selected  as  to 
bring  out  the  most  important  ideas  in  the  subject-matter, 

2.  That  there  should  be  a  large  proportion  of  thought  ques- 
tions in  order  to  call  for  something  more  than  a  parrot- 
Uke  repetition  of  memorized  facts,  so  that  the  better 
students  may  be  enabled  to  demonstrate  their  superior 
reasoning  abilities. 

3.  That  some  accurate  method  of  weighting  the  questions 
must  be  used  if  accurate  measurement  of  pupils'  abilities 
and  knowledge  is  to  be  expected. 

4.  That  the  weighting  of  questions  by  individual  teachers  on 
the  basis  of  their  personal  judgments  is  mere  guess  work, 
since,  as  was  shown  by  our  experiment,  they  cannot  even 
judge  accurately  the  relative  difficulty  of  questions. 

5.  That  the  average  of  the  judgments  of  a  number  of  teachers 
is  apt  to  be  more  accurate  than  the  judgment  of  a  single 
one. 

In  line  with  this  last  conclusion  we  then  proceeded  to 
find  the  average  rank  assigned  each  question  and,  with 
these  averages  as  a  basis,  to  rank  the  questions  according 
to  their  relative  difficulty  as  determined  by  the  combined 
judgments  of  the  teachers.  Next  I  asked  them  to  use 
these  ranks  as  a  guide  and  to  assign  values  to  each  ques- 
tion so  that  the  sum  of  the  values  would  equal  one  hun- 
dred. It  was  observed  that  for  each  question  the  varia- 
tions in  values  were  not  as  wide  as  the  variations  in  ranks 
had  been.  This  was  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  order 
of  difficulty  used  as  a  guide  and  the  limit  of  one  hundred 


22  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

placed  on  the  sum  of  the  values  would  necessarily  permit 
much  less  variation.  The  average  results  are  shown  in 
Table  III. 

TABLE    III.    WEIGHTS    ASSIGNED    TO    TWELVE    HISTORY 
QUESTIONS  ACCORDING  TO  TEACHERS'  JUDGMENTS 

Average  Average 

Question  ~  estimated  estimated 

No.  rank  value 

1 8 lo 

2 4 4 

3 9 12 

4 I I 

S 7 9 

6 5 7 

7 2 2 

8 6 8 

9 3 3 

lo II 14 

•II lo 13 

12 12 17    Total...  100 

The  lesson  of  the  day  had  been  so  well  assimilated  that 
some  one  suggested  that  since  the  ranking  of  the  questions 
by  each  individual  was  all  guesswork  as  proved  by  our 
experiment,  then  our  averages  were  only  averages  of 
guesswork  and  hence  likely  to  be  far  from  reliable.  For 
her  part  she  did  not  see  that  we  had  any  real  proof  that 
question  twelve,  for  instance,  was  any  harder  than  ques- 
tion three,  and  more  than  that  she  did  n't  see  how  we  were 
going  to  prove  that  it  was.  Then  came  what  I  was  hoping 
for,  but  hardly  expected. 

"  The  eighth  grades  have  recently  completed  their 
study  of  the  period  of  history  which  the  questions  cover. 
Why  not  give  them  as  a  test  to  these  grades  and  so  find 
out  which  questions  are  hardest?  "  This  from  a  bright  girl 
who  had  attended  one  summer  session  at  Plymouth 
Normal. 

"  How  could  you  prove  which  questions  are  hardest  by 
doing  that?  "  I  asked. 


THE  COOPERATION  OF  TEACHERS  23 

"  Why,  if  the  questions  were  given  to  a  large  number  of 
pupils,  would  it  not  be  safe  to  conclude  that  the  one  which 
is  missed  the  most  times  is  hardest  and  that  the  one  missed 
the  next  largest  number  of  times  is  the  next  hardest,  and 
so  on?  " 

The  practical  side  of  this  suggestion  appealed  to  the 
majority  of  the  teachers  at  once  and  they  were  eager  to 
try  it.  Since  this  was  the  very  thing  I  had  intended  to 
propose  in  order  to  get  material  for  discussion  at  our  next 
meeting,  you  may  be  sure  that  I  was  not  slow  in  taking 
advantage  of  their  enthusiasm.  So  it  was  decided  to  give 
this  list  of  questions  as  a  history  test  to  all  the  eighth- 
grade  pupils  in  the  district.  The  teachers  were  to  bring 
the  corrected  papers  with  them  to  the  next  meeting. 

The  Third  Meeting 

I  WATCHED  the  faces  of  the  teachers  as  they  gathered 
for  our  third  meeting.  The  dazed  look  had  passed  from 
most  of  them  by  this  time  and  a  look  of  intelligent  com- 
prehension was  taking  its  place.  The  books  which  they 
had  ordered  at  my  request  had  arrived  during  the  week 
and  they  had  been  reading  them.  They  were  apparently 
beginning  to  get  their  bearings.  There  was  a  business- 
like air  in  the  way  they  took  their  seats  and  prepared  for 
the  afternoon's  work  that  augured  well  for  the  future. 

The  meeting  having  been  called  to  order  we  began  to 
investigate  the  results  of  the  history  test.  It  had  been 
given  to  106  pupils.  As  I  ailled  a  question  by  number, 
each  teacher  told  me  how  many  times  her  pupils  had 
missed  it.  I  wrote  the  figures  on  the  board,  a  column  for 
each  question.  When  the  results  had  all  been  read  they 
were  summed  and  tabulated  as  in  Table  IV. 

This  table  showed  that  question  four  was  the  easiest 
since  it  was  missed  the  least  number  of  times  and  that 


«4 


STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


TABLE  IV.    RANK  OF  HISTORY  QUESTIONS  IN  DIFFICULTY 
BASED  ON  NUMBER  OF  TIMES  MISSED 


Question  No  . . . 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

Times  missed  . . 

28 

44 

40 

8 

23 

20 

35 

29 

16 

60 

56 

SI 

Real  rank 

5 

9 

8 

1 

4 

3 

7 

6 

2 

12 

11 

10 

question  ten  was  the  hardest  since  it  was  missed  the 
greatest  number  of  times;  also,  that  question  ten  was 
seven  and  a  half  times  as  hard  as  question  four  because  it 
was  missed  seven  and  a  half  times  as  often. ^  This  would 
indicate  that,  in  weighting  the  questions,  number  ten 
should  be  valued  seven  and  a  half  times  as  much  as  num- 
ber four.  When  these  points  had  been  discussed,  even 
the  teacher  who  was  dissatisfied  at  our  last  meeting  was 
convinced  that  we  had  found  a  fairly  accurate  method  of 
evaluating  questions. 

The  next  step  was  to  find  values  for  the  questions  ac- 
cording to  their  relative  difficulties.  We  first  assigned  to 
the  easiest  question  (number  four),  which  was  missed 
eight  times,  a  value  of  one.  Since  the  next  question  in 
order  of  difficulty  (number  nine)  was  missed  sixteen  times, 
or  just  twice  as  often  as  number  four,  we  gave  it  a  value  of 
two.  Question  six  was  missed  twenty  times.  As  twenty 
is  two  and  a  half  times  eight,  this  question  was  valued  two 
and  a  half.     The  same  method  was  followed  throughout. 

The  sum  of  these  values  was  found  to  be  51.5.  Since 
the  sum  of  the  teachers'  estimated  values  (Table  III)  was 
one  hundred,  it  was  necessary  for  comparative  purposes 
that  the  sum  of  these  values  should  also  be  one  hundred. 
Evidently  if  each  of  them  were  multiplied  by  two,  the 
sum  of  the  resulting  proportionate  values  would  be  103. 

1  Statistical  diflSculties  involving  the  location  of  the  zero  point  were  ignored. 


THE  COOPERATION  OF  TEACHERS 


25 


This  was  near  enough  to  one  hundred  for  our  purpose  and 
it  had  the  advantage  of  yielding  whole  numbers.  These 
may  be  seen  in  the  last  column  of  Table  V,  which  sum- 
marizes the  results  of  our  study  of  the  history  questions. 

TABLE  V.    SUMMARY  OF  RANKS  AND  VALUES  FOR  EACH 
OF  TWELVE  HISTORY  QUESTIONS 


Question 
No. 

Estimated 
rank 

Real 
rank 

Times 
missed 

Estimated 

value 

Value 
from 
times 
missed 

The  same 

muUiplied 

by  2 

I 

8 

5 

28 

10 

35 

7 

3 

4 

9 

44 

4 

5-5 

II 

3 

9 

8 

40 

12 

5-0 

10 

4 

I 

I 

8 

I 

I.O 

2 

5 

7 

4 

23 

9 

3-0 

6 

6 

5 

3 

20 

7 

2.5 

S 

7 

2 

7 

35 

2 

4.5 

9 

8 

6 

6 

29 

8 

3-5 

7 

9 

3 

2 

16 

3 

2.0 

4 

10 

II 

12 

60 

14 

7-5 

IS 

11 

10 

II 

56 

13 

7.0 

14 

13 

12 

10 

SI 

17 

6.5 

13 

After  the  teachers  had  rated  a  few  history  papers  using 
the  two  sets  of  values,  we  concluded  our  experiments. 
Crude  and  inaccurate  they  were,  of  course;  but  they  were 
not  intended  to  contribute  to  the  statistics  of  educational 
measurements.  They  were  rather  designed  to  exemplify 
to  the  teachers  that  spirit  of  scientific  investigation  which 
•is  so  rapidly  making  over  our  school  systems,  and  in  par- 
ticular to  convince  them  that  teachers'  ratings  as  ordi- 
narily made  are  unreliable.  And  they  had  served  well. 
All  but  two  or  three  of  the  teachers  had  by  this  time 
expressed  their  firm  conviction  that  tests  devised  by 
teachers  and  rated  according  to  individual  standards  were 
of  little  use  in  finding  out  a  pupil's  real  knowledge  or 
ability,  or  in  determining  his  standing  with  regard  to  other 


26  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

pupils  of  his  age  and  grade.  These  two  or  three  teachers 
no  amount  of  accumulated  evidence  could  convince,  be- 
cause everything  was  unalterably  settled  to  their  way  of 
thinking  before  the  experiments  were  tried.  The  old 
methods  had  been  in  use  for  hundreds  of  years  and  must, 
therefore,  be  better  than  anything  new.  It  is  useless  to 
waste  time  with  such  people.  The  only  thing  to  do  is  to 
get  rid  of  them  at  the  first  opportunity. 

A  few  more  points  were  cleared  up  by  general  discussion. 
Some  one  objected  that,  with  a  passing  mark  of  seventy, 
it  was  evident  from  the  scores  that  two  thirds  of  the 
pupils  would  fail  to  pass  the  test.  This  brought  up  an 
important  point.  Is  it  fair  to  mark  pupils  on  a  percentage 
basis  with  loo  standing  for  perfection?  Some  thought  it 
was.  Some  thought  it  was  n't.  Most  of  them  had  n't 
thought  about  it  at  all,  but  since  the  matter  was  called  to 
their  attention  they  were  inclined  to  think  that  it  was 
hardly  fair.     What  fairer  way  could  I  suggest? 

I  then  explained  what  is  meant  by  a  median  score, 
demonstrated  with  figures  on  the  board  the  difference 
between  median  and  average,  pointed  out  the  advantages 
of  the  median,  and  then  proposed  that  we  find  the  median 
score  of  the  io6  history  papers  using  the  derived  values 
for  marking.  This  was  found  to  be  65.1,  to  which  I  added 
10  per  cent  of  itself  and  suggested  that  we  use  the  result, 
71.6,  as  a  standard  score.  Any  child  who  got  this  score 
would  be  given  a  mark  of  100.  That  is,  a  pupil's  mark 
would  be  the  per  cent  that  his  score  was  of  the  standard 
score.  For  instance,  if  pupil  A  had  a  score  of  26,  his  mark 
would  be  26  divided  by  71.6  or  7,6.  If  pupil  B  scored  63, 
his  mark  would  be  63  divided  by  71.6  or  90.  A  pupil  who 
scored  85  would  receive  a  mark  of  118.  In  using  letters 
for  marks  this  pupil  would  be  marked  A  +.  It  was  pretty 
well  agreed  that  this  method  of  marking  would  be  emi- 


THE  COOPERATION  OF  TEACHERS         27 

nently  fair,  provided  standard  scores  were  available.  The 
method  may  not  be  scientifically  accurate;  but  it  is  cer- 
tainly fairer  than  the  ordinary  method  of  marking  on  a 
percentage  basis,  and  it  has  the  advantage  of  simplicity. 

Then  some  one  wanted  to  know  if  we  should  do  away 
with  teachers'  tests  entirely  and  depend  on  the  standard- 
ized tests  altogether.  We  finally  decided  that  teachers' 
tests  should  be  used  often  by  way  of  written  reviews  for 
the  benefit  of  the  pupils,  but  that  the  results  should  not 
have  too  much  weight  in  determining  the  pupil's  final 
standing.  The  pupils  themselves,  however,  need  not 
know  how  much  or  how  little  weight  these  tests  might 
have  on  their  grading  for  promotion. 

Most  of  the  standardized  tests  which  I  had  ordered  were 
at  hand  for  this  meeting.  Samples  of  these  were  given  to 
the  teachers  to  study  in  connection  with  their  new  books 
on  educational  measurements.  After  explaining  briefly 
the  painstaking  methods  employed  in  deriving  these  tests 
and  scales,  I  dismissed  the  meeting. 

The  Fourth  Meeting 

Our  fourth  meeting  was  devoted  to  the  actual  work  of 
giving  and  scoring  the  tests.  A  few  obvious  facts  were 
first  emphasized,  such  as  the  need  of  accurate  timing  in 
cases  where  time  was  a  factor,  the  fact  that  no  help  should 
be  given  the  pupils  other  than  clear  and  complete  direc- 
tions, and  the  fact  that  when  directions  accompanied  the 
tests  they  should  be  followed  explicitly.  I  also  warned 
the  teachers  to  beware  of  copying  on  the  part  of  pupils; 
and  I  then  proceeded  to  administer  the  tests  to  the  teach- 
ers just  as  they  should  be  administered  in  the  classroom. 
As  each  test  was  finished,  we  corrected  and  scored  it,  each 
teacher  correcting  and  scoring  her  own  paper  for  practice. 
In  this  way  many  obscure  points  were  cleared  up.    Each 


c8  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

teacher  had  seen  each  test  given  and  had  herself  corrected 
and  scored  a  sample  of  each  test  properly.  They  kept 
these  corrected  samples  to  use  as  models  in  correcting  the 
tests  which  they  were  to  give  in  their  schools.  Unless 
some  such  precaution  is  taken  beforehand,  the  superin- 
tendent is  sure  to  be  surprised  and  dismayed  when  he  gets 
the  first  packages  of  tests  from  his  teachers.  He  will  find 
that  he  must  either  return  them  to  the  teachers  with  time- 
consuming  directions  and  explanations  or  go  over  most  of 
them  himself  in  order  to  secure  accurate  results.  I  had 
been  through  such  experiences  before  on  a  small  scale  and 
intended  to  avoid  them  this  time  as  far  as  possible. 

Since  the  tests  were  to  be  given  to  pupils  the  following 
week,  each  teacher  then  received  a  sufficient  supply  for  her 
school.  The  tests  were  to  be  corrected  and  returned  to  me 
by  mail  within  ten  days.  Unless  a  definite  time  Hmit 
is  set  and  strictly  adhered  to,  batches  of  tests  from  the 
various  schools  will  come  straggling  in  for  two  months 
after  they  are  given  out.  Thus  a  few  procrastinating 
teachers  can  delay  the  superintendent's  part  of  the  work 
to  a  very  annoying  extent.  In  order  to  tabulate  and  study 
results  for  the  district  as  a  whole,  he  must  have  all  his 
data  in  hand  at  one  time  and  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
tests  are  given  out.  In  this  case  I  was  particularly  anxious 
to  have  all  the  tests  in  on  time  as  the  grading  of  the  schools 
was  being  delayed  pending  the  results.  So  I  laid  special 
emphasis  on  the  ten-day  limit. 

The  teachers  were  further  warned  that,  although  I  had 
no  reason  to  distrust  anybody,  the  matter  was  too  im- 
portant to  permit  taking  any  chances.  Accordingly,  I 
proposed  to  check  the  work  of  each  teacher  by  giving  one 
or  two  of  the  tests  in  her  school  after  she  had  given  all  of 
them.  By  comparing  the  results  of  my  tests  with  theirs 
of  the  same  kind,  I  could  readily  detect  any  gross  careless- 


THE  COOPERATION  OF  TEACHERS    29 

ness  or  intentional  dishonesty  on  the  part  of  the  teachers. 
There  is  considerable  temptation  for  some  short-sighted 
teachers  who  know  that  their  own  efiiciency  is  being 
measured  by  these  tests,  to  stretch  the  time  limit  or  to 
give  illegitimate  aid  to  the  pupils,  or  even  to  drill  on  the 
test  itself,  in  the  effort  to  make  their  classes  show  up  well. 
Of  course  any  intelligent  teacher,  knowing  how  the  tests 
are  used,  would  see  the  short-sightedness  of  such  a  policy, 
since  it  is  evident  that  what  might  be  gained  on  one  test 
would  be  lost  on  the  next.  However,  two  or  three  such 
dishonest  teachers  may,  at  first,  work  sad  havoc  with  the 
accuracy  of  a  superintendent's  final  figures  regarding  the 
efficiency  of  his  schools  and  teachers  unless  he  takes  some 
precautions  to  discover  the  culprits  at  the  start.  Hence 
my  method  of  checking  their  work. 

Above  all,  tests  should  not  be  permitted  to  fall  into  the 
hands  of  pupils.  Since  they  are  to  be  used  again  and  again 
to  measure  progress,  teachers  should  be  impressed  with 
the  importance  of  safeguarding  them.  As  fast  as  the 
papers  are  finished,  they  should  be  taken  up  to  prevent 
possible  copying  of  the  questions  or  problems  by  the 
pupils  in  preparation  for  future  tests.  Of  course,  this  does 
not  apply  in  the  case  of  the  writing,  spelling,  and  composi- 
tion scales  because  of  the  difi'erent  manner  in  which  they 
are  used.  In  fact  it  is  well  to  display  these  scales  on  the 
walls  of  the  schoolroom  so  that  the  pupils  may  try  to 
measure  their  own  work. 

In  this  chapter  I  have  attempted  to  give  an  account  of 
how  the  cooperation  of  teachers  was  secured  in  the  use  of 
standardized  tests.  It  may  not  be  intensely  interesting 
in  the  reading,  but  it  was  assuredly  interesting  in  the 
doing.  Results  since  have  proved  its  value.  I  can 
recommend  the  general  procedure  to  any  one  with  a 
similar  problem  to  solve. 


CHAPTER  IV 

USING  STANDARDIZED  TESTS  FOR 
GRADING  PURPOSES 

In  Chapter  III  I  explained  how  the  cooperation  of  teach- 
ers was  secured  in  the  use  of  standardized  tests  and  how 
the  teachers  were  instructed  as  to  the  manner  of  giving 
and  scoring  them.  The  chapter  concluded  with  an  ac- 
count of  the  distribution  of  the  tests  with  directions  that 
they  were  to  be  used  at  once  in  the  schools.  These  schools, 
as  I  have  indicated,  were  not  graded.  Indeed,  it  was  the 
immediate  purpose  of  this  preliminary  test  to  secure  a 
satisfactory  basis  for  grading  them. 

Supervising  the  Testing 

During  the  ten  days  allotted  to  the  teachers  for  giving, 
scoring,  and  returning  the  tests,  I  visited  as  many  schools 
as  possible,  giving  advice  and  help  where  it  appeared  to 
be  most  needed.  Considerable  time  and  labor  were  thus 
saved  in  the  later  tabulation  of  results.  Moreover,  this 
plan  enabled  me  afterwards  to  avoid  much  of  the  delay 
incident  to  the  repetition  of  tests  found  on  examination  to 
have  been  carelessly  or  improperly  given. 

Even  so,  it  was  not  all  smooth  sailing.  In  spite  of  pre- 
liminary precautions  to  ensure  accurate  results  in  the 
shortest  possible  time,  a  number  of  tests  had  to  be  re- 
peated before  I  could  feel  sure  that  the  results  were  fairly 
accurate.  The  returns  of  two  or  three  teachers  indicated 
such  gross  carelessness  or  incompetence  or  both  that  I  was 
obliged  to  repeat  the  tests  in  their  schools  myself.  But 
since  the  purpose  of  this  Chapter  is  to  show  how  the  re- 


TESTS  FOR  GRADING  PURPOSES 


31 


suits  of  these  tests  were  used  for  grading  purposes,  I  shall 
confine  myself  to  that  topic. 

Converting  Scores  into  Grades 

The  first  step  was  to  mark  each  paper  with  the  grade 
corresponding  to  the  score  recorded  on  it  by  the  teacher. 
For  instance,  one  pupil's  score  on  Woody's  Multiplication 
Scale  was  15.  Since  15  is  the  standard  score  for  grade  vi, 
this  paper  was  marked  "  6."  Another  pupil's  score  on  the 
same  scale  was  16.  Since  15  is  the  standard  score  for 
grade  vi  and  17  is  the  standard  score  for  grade  vii,  this 
paper  was  marked"  6  1/2."  On  Courtis's  Silent  Reading 
Test  a  certain  pupil  received  the  following  scores:  words 
read  per  minute,  140;  questions  answered  in  five  minutes, 
38;  index  of  comprehension,  94.  The  standard  scores  for 
grades  11- vi  are  given  as  follows: 


Words  per  minute  .  . 
Questions  in  five  minutes 
Index  of  comprehension  . 


11 

III 

IV 

V 

84 

113 

145 

168 

16 

24 

30 

37 

59 

78 

89 

93 

VI 

191 
40 

95 


Hence  the  grades  marked  on  the  paper  were,  for  words 
per  minute,  4;  for  questions  answered  in  five  minutes, 
5  1/3;  for  index  of  comprehension,  5  1/2. 

If  teachers  are  instructed  to  keep  all  the  tests  of  one  kind 
together  rather  than  all  the  tests  of  one  pupil,  this  task  of 
grading  the  papers  is  not  interminable.  As  the  teachers 
correct  the  papers,  they  should  mark  the  score  plainly  on 
the  front  page.  Then  the  superintendent  may  compare 
these  scores  with  the  standard  scores  and  grade  the  papers 
correspondingly.  About  two  days  sufficed  to  mark  the 
approximately  two  thousand  papers  from  all  the  schools. 
The  work  was  considerably  facilitated  by  having  on  a 


32  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

single  sheet  of  cardboard  the  tables  of  standard  scores  for 
all  the  tests.  Working  at  a  large  table  with  this  sheet 
propped  up  in  front  of  me,  I  could  after  a  little  practice 
ascertain  at  a  glance  the  grade  corresponding  to  any  score. 
The  advantage  of  such  a  procedure  will  soon  become 
obvious  to  any  one  who  attempts  to  mark  a  large  number 
of  papers  with  the  standard  scores  scattered  in  a  dozen 
different  books  and  pamphlets.  (By  way  of  an  aside,  I 
wonder  why  all  the  authors  of  tests  do  not  print  the 
standard  scores  on  the  front  page.  It  would  save  a  lot  of 
time  for  the  people  who  use  the  tests.) 

Devising  a  Graph  Card 

Next  came  the  harder  task  of  devising  a  method  of  re- 
cording results  which  would  meet  four  conditions:  (i)  be 
in  a  form  readily  available  for  grading  purposes;  (2)  be 
concrete  and  graphic  enough  to  be  clearly  understood  by 
teachers,  pupils,  and  parents;  (3)  show  on  a  single  form 
small  enough  to  be  conveniently  filed  the  standing  of  a 
pupil,  a  class,  or  a  school  in  all  subjects  of  the  course  of 
study  for  which  standardized  tests  are  available ;  (4)  be  in 
a  form  that  could  be  used  as  the  beginning  of  a  continuous 
record  to  measure  progress  of  pupils  and  ability  of  teachers. 
The  class  record  sheets  and  graph  sheets  accompanying 
several  of  the  tests  were  carefully  studied  with  a  view  to 
adapting  them  to  the  purpose  in  hand.  I  soon  decided, 
however,  that  they  were  too  complicated  and  time-con- 
suming for  practical  use  by  the  superintendent  who  must 
do  all  his  own  tabulating  of  results  or  have  it  done  by  un- 
trained teachers.  Certainly  such  record  and  graph  sheets 
would  not  meet  any  of  the  last  three  conditions  mentioned 
above.  They  could  not  be  easily  understood  by  pupils 
and  parents.  There  would  be  as  many  sheets  as  there 
were  subjects;  and  several  files  instead  of  one  would  there- 


TESTS  FOR  GRADING  PURPOSES  33 

fore  be  required.  Furthermore,  such  sheets  do  not  ac- 
company all  the  tests,  and  only  two  or  three  tests  make 
any  provision  for  keeping  permanent  records  of  the  scores 
of  individual  pupils.  Some  sort  of  simple  graphic  repre- 
sentation that  would  include  all  the  tests  on  a  single  small 
sheet  was  absolutely  necessary  if  the  scheme  was  to  be 
simple  enough  for  practical  use. 

After  considerable  experimenting,  during  which  some 
of  the  graphs  evolved  resembled  nothing  so  much  as  a  lost 
trail  in  the  desert,  I  fmally  adopted  the  following  plan  as 
both  simple  and  practical.  I  ruled  several  4X6  cards  in 
copying  ink  with  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  as  shown  in 
Figure  i.  The  vertical  lines  were  numbered  at  the  top  to 
represent  subjects  and  phases  of  subjects  in  which  tests 
had  been  given.  The  horizontal  lines  were  numbered  with 
Roman  numerals  to  represent  the  eight  grades  of  the  ele- 
mentary school.  From  these  originals  nearly  four  hun- 
dred hektograph  copies  were  made  —  enough  for  all  the 
pupils  in  my  schools  above  the  first  grade. 

The  Meaning  of  the  Graph  Card 

With  these  forms  in  hand  and  with  the  papers  properly 
graded,  it  did  not  take  very  long  to  construct  a  graph  for 
each  individual  pupil.  Figure  i  is  a  copy  of  an  actual 
record  on  file  in  my  office.  It  is  the  graph  of  L.  D.,  an 
eleven-year-old  boy  in  the  village  school,  Tamworth, 
New  Hampshire.  Table  VI  shows  the  same  data  includ- 
ing the  subjects  and  phases  of  subjects  corresponding  to 
the  numbers  of  the  vertical  lines  of  Figure  i.  L.  D.'s 
grade  for  each  test  is  shown  in  Table  VI  in  the  right-hand 
column  opposite  the  name  of  the  test.  In  constructing 
the  graph  a  heavy  dot  was  placed  at  the  intersection  of 
vertical  line  i  with  grade  line  in  to  indicate  third-grade 
ability  in  rate  of  silent  reading;  a  second  dot  at  the  inter- 


34 


STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


section  of  vertical  line  2  with  grade  line  vii  to  indicate 
seventh-grade  ability  in  number  of  questions  answered  in 
five  minutes;  a  third  dot  at  the  intersection  of  vertical 
hne  3  with  grade  line  iii  to  indicate  third-grade  ability 
according  to  index  of  comprehension;  and  so  on  until  the 
pupil's  standing  in  all  the  subjects  had  been  properly 
located  by  dots.     The  dots  were  then  connected  by  a 


INDIVIDUAL  RECORD 

Name.L.D. Age//....  School.    7^  »v  wo  ri^A  V/'//a  g  a 

1 

2       3       4       5       6       7       8        9      10      11      12     13     14     15     16      17     isl 

Tin 

VII 
VI 
V 
IV 

in 
II 
I 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

^ 

y 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

Fig.  1.  Sample  op  Individual  Record.    Data  the  Same  as  in 
Table  VI 


heavy  line  giving  the  graph  as  shown.  In  actual  practice 
the  grades  marked  on  the  papers  were  translated  directly 
into  properly  placed  dots  on  the  graph  card  without  con- 
structing tables  hke  Table  VI.  This  can  be  done  very 
rapidly  with  a  little  practice.  Of  course,  for  this  purpose 
the  papers  should  be  sorted  so  as  to  get  all  the  test  papers 
of  one  child  together.  By  this  means  each  pupil's  graph 
can  be  completed  before  taking  up  the  next. 
The  Older  in  which  the  subjects  are  entered  on  the  graph 


TESTS  FOR  GRADING  PURPOSES 


35 


TABLE  VI.    RECORD  OF  L.  D. 
(See  also  Figure  i) 


No. 


I 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

lO 

II 

12 

13 
14 
IS 
i6 

17 


Subjects  and  phases  of  subjects 


Rate  of  silent  reading:  Courtis's  Test 

Writing  speed 

Writing  quality. 

Questions  answered  in  five  minutes:  Courtis's  Test 

Inde.K  of  comprehension:  Courtis's  Test 

Spelling 

Addition 

Subtraction 

Multiplication 

Division 

Mixed  fundamentals 

Arithmetical  reasoning:  correct  principle 

Arithmetical  reasoning:  correct  answer 

Visual  vocabulary 

English  organization 

Geography 

History 


Grade 


III 
VII 
III 
VII 
VII 

III 

IV 
V 

VI 
V 
IV 
IV 
VI 
V 

V 


card  is  significant,  Reading  is  placed  first  because  all 
grades  are  tested  for  reading  ability.  Spelling  and  writing 
follow,  since  they  come  early  in  school  life.  Then  come 
the  four  fundamental  operations  of  arithmetic,  and  so  on, 
those  subjects  coming  last  which  are  taught  only  in  the 
upper  grades.  Suppose  the  subjects  were  given  in  the 
following  order:  reading,  history,  spelling,  arithmetical 
reasoning,  addition,  geography,  etc.  Then  the  graph  of  a 
third-grade  pupil  could  not  be  drawn,  since  such  a  pupil 
would  not  be  tested  for  history,  geography,  or  arithmetical 
reasoning.  The  dots  on  the  graph  card  indicating  his 
grade  of  ability  in  the  subjects  which  he  does  take  would 
not  be  located  on  consecutive  vertical  lines.  Hence  no 
continuous  line  connecting  the  dots  could  be  drawn. 
With  the  subjects  arranged  on  the  card  in  the  order  shown, 


36  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

the  graph  will  be  complete  as  far  as  it  goes,  although  it 
may  extend  only  part-way  across  the  card. 

Using  numbers  to  represent  the  subjects  on  the  graph 
card  is  not  such  a  disadvantage  as  it  might  at  first  appear 
to  be.  One  very  soon  learns  to  associate  the  subjects  with 
their  respective  numbers.  The  slight  disadvantage  ex- 
perienced in  the  beginning  is  very  much  more  than  offset 
by  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  use  a  much  smaller  card 
than  would  be  possible  if  the  names  of  all  the  subjects 
were  written  in. 

Grading  the  Pupils 

Next  came  the  problem  of  dedding  upon  the  grades  in 
which  pupils  should  be  placed  for  the  year's  work.  A 
glance  at  the  graph  for  L.  D.  shows  that  he  had  an  aver- 
age of  about  fifth-grade  ability  at  the  beginning  of  the 
school  year.  In  fact  the  average  of  his  grade  as  shown  in 
Table  VI  is  almost  exactly  five.  Clearly,  then,  since  the 
standards  are  June  standards,  he  belongs  in  the  sixth  grade 
for  the  current  year.  Therefore  the  sixth-grade  line  on 
his  card  was  emphasized  by  overlining  to  indicate  that  he 
is  a  sixth-grade  pupil.  Then,  with  his  name,  age,  and  the 
name  of  the  school  entered  as  shown  in  Figure  i,  the  card 
was  ready  for  filing.  In  the  same  manner  a  graph  card 
was  prepared  for  each  child,  his  grade  determined,  and  the 
card  placed  on  file. 

Within  two  weeks  from  the  time  the  first  tests  were  re- 
turned, a  graph  card  had  been  filed  for  every  pupil  (above 
the  first  grade)  in  the  district,  and  each  pupil  had  been 
assigned  to  the  grade  corresponding  to  the  average  ability 
indicated  by  his  or  her  graph.  A  week  later  each  teacher 
had  received  copies  of  the  graphs  of  her  own  pupils  in 
order  that  she  might  see  where  their  weak  points  were  and 
govern  her  work  accordingly. 


TESTS  FOR  GRADING  PURPOSES 


37 


Although  in  about  a  score  of  cases  it  was  later  found 
advisable  to  place  a  child  a  grade  above  or  below  that 
indicated  by  his  graph,  on  the  whole  this  method  of  grad- 
ing has  proved  surprisingly  accurate.  Most  of  the  cases 
referred  to  were  those  of  very  bright  children  who,  on  the 
basis  of  the  test  results,  would  have  been  advanced  to  a 
grade  very  much  above  normal  for  their  ages.  The  graph 
in  Figure  2  illustrates  a  case  in  pomt.    This  eight-year-old 


INDIVIDUAL  RECORD 

NamoE  .C Age  .?       School    ...  C/lOC  or(y,« 

1        ■>        -^       A       «       fi       7       S       9      10      11       12     13      14     15     16     17     18 

vm 

VII 
VI 
V 
IV 
III 
II 

/ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

^ 

^ 

\ 

J 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

' 

' ' ' 1 

Fig.  2.  Sample  of  Individual  Record  op  a  Bright  Child  (E.  C.) 

girl  shows  an  average  of  fifth-grade  ability.  Her  mental 
age,  as  indicated  by  the  Otis  Group  Intelligence  Scale,  is 
twelve  years.  She  is  fully  capable  of  doing  sixth-grade 
work  this  year.  However,  in  spite  of  the  opinions  of  some 
eminent  educators  to  the  contrary,  I  cannot  convince 
myself  that  it  is  wise  to  rush  such  children  through  school, 
especially  in  a  district  like  this  where  the  elementary  school 
is  pretty  sure  to  see  the  beginning  and  end  of  their  school 
life.    Is  it  not  better  to  keep  them  in  school  until  they  are 

i  f^  -^  J-  i- 


38  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

at  least  fourteen,  giving  them  a  chance  to  do  more  and 
harder  work  than  their  classmates  of  mediocre  ability,  and 
supplying  them  with  much  carefully  selected  informa- 
tional supplementary  reading  to  broaden  their  minds? 
There  were  four  other  cases  of  this  kind  in  the  same  school. 
This,  then,  is  a  preliminary  account  of  how  standardized 
tests  and  scales  were  used  to  solve  the  grading  problem. 
I  believe  that  any  one  confronted  with  a  similar  problem 
will  find  the  scheme  practical.  Nor  will  the  labor  involved 
prove  either  monotonous  or  uninteresting  to  one  whose 
heart  is  in  his  work. 


CHAPTER  V 

CONDITIONS  REVEALED  BY  THE  USE  OF 
STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

While  making  out  the  graph  cards  of  individual  pupils  for 
grading  purposes  as  described  in  chapter  IV,  I  gradually 
became  conscious  of  certain  tendencies  affecting  the 
majority  of  the  graphs.  Not  only  was  the  variation  great 
among  individuals  in  dififerent  subjects,  but  there  was  a 
certain  sameness  in  it  that  struck  me  as  being  significant 
of  fundamental  weaknesses  in  the  school  system.  If  the 
graphs  had  been  on  transparent  cards  and  had  been  placed 
in  a  pile,  their  low  and  high  points  would  have  tended  to 
coincide.  That  is,  in  certain  subjects  most  of  the  pupils 
tended  to  grade  high  throughout  the  district,  while  in 
other  subjects  they  tended  to  grade  low. 

The  Graph  Cards  Described 

In  Figures  3  to  7,  the  numbers  at  the  left  of  the  horizontal 
lines  represent  the  grades,  while  those  at  the  top  of  the 
vertical  lines  stand  for  the  various  subjects  as  follows:  ^ 

1.  Rate  of  silent  reading  9.  Writing,  rate^ 

2.  Comprehension  in  reading  10.  Writing,  quality 

3.  Addition  n-  Arithmetical  reasoning 

4.  Subtraction  12.  English  organization 

5.  Multiplication  13-  Visual  vocabulary 

6.  Division  14-  Language 

7.  Mixed  fundamentals  of  15.  Geography 

arithmetic  16.  History 

8.  Spelling 

>  This  arrangement  of  subjects  is  somewhat  difiFercnt  from  the  illustrative 
arrangement  shown  in  chapter  iv. 


40 


STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


In  each  of  these  figures  the  heavy  horizontal  line  is 
drawn  at  the  grade  in  which  the  pupil  was  placed  as  a 
result  of  the  September  testing.  The  solid  lines  show  the 
grading  of  the  pupils  according  to  each  of  the  tests  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year;  the  broken  lines  show  their  grading 
at  the  end  of  the  year.  In  interpreting  these  figures  it 
should  be  remembered  that,  as  before  stated,  the  grading 


FIGURE  3 

SCOTT                                            GRADE  V                           CHICK'S  CORNER  SCHOOL 

2        3        4        5        6        7        8        9       lO      11       12      13      14      15  16 

8 
7 
6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
1 

/. 

X^ 

s 

/ 
/ 
/ 

\ 

\ 

1 

f 

s^ 

-^ 

s""*" 

/ 

'    / 

\  \ 
\\ 

1 

\ 

// 

/; 

-— — 

"~^" 

/ 

k 

// 
// 
/  / 

\ 

/ 

f 

SEP- 

:ORE 

\ 

/ 

JUN 

E  SCORF?; 

~      '  Fig.  3. 

is  based  on  June  scores.  In  other  words,  if  a  child's  score 
on  any  test  equals  the  standard  for  the  fourth  grade,  his 
performance  is  that  of  a  child  who  has  completed  the 
fourth  grade.  Since  his  scores  (obtained  in  September) 
indicate  that  he  has  already  attained  fourth-grade  pro- 
ficiency, he  will  naturally  be  placed  in  the  class  which  is 
just  beginning  the  fifth-grade  work. 

In  Figure  3  the  solid  hne  shows  the  curve  of  Scott,  a 
twelve-year-old,  fifth-grade  boy  in  one  of  the  Sandwich 
schools,  at  the  beginning  of  the  year.    The  high  and  low 


CONDITIONS  REVEALED  41 

points  are  more  pronounced  than  in  most  cases.  The 
solid  lines  in  Figures  4  and  5  are  the  September  curves  of 
two  other  pupils  drawn  at  random  from  among  the  cards 
of  the  Madison  and  Tam worth  schools.  All  three  of  these 
pupils  are  normal  or  above  according  to  the  Otis  Group 
Intelligence  Scale.  The  broken  lines  in  these  figures  are 
the  end-of-thc-year  curves. 


FIGURE  4 

EVERETT                                  GRADE  VII                        TAMWORTH  VILLAGE  SCHOOL 

1         2        3        4        5         6        7         8        9        10       1 1       1 2        13      14       1 5    16 

8 

7 
6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
1 

/' 

\ 

^^ 

■^^ 

,."/ 

\\ 

^,. 

!l:i^.. 

) 

■^C, 

^ 

K 

\ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

^x 

1/ 

\ 

^ 

\ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

■ 

:ORE 

3RES 

FiQ.  4- 

It  will  help  in  the  understanding  of  the  figures  to  take 
the  case  of  a  particular  child.  Consider  the  record  of 
Paul  (Figure  5).  His  score  in  the  September  test  for  rate 
of  silent  reading  was  62.  The  third-grade  score  for  rate 
of  silent  reading  is  60.  Accordingly,  this  boy  showed 
third-grade  ability  in  rate  of  silent  reading  in  the  first  test. 
The  first  point  on  the  solid  line  is,  therefore,  located  at  the 
intersection  of  the  third-grade  line  with  the  vertical  line 
I.  In  the  June  test  Paul's  score  for  rate  of  silent  reading 
was  97.     Since  97  is  midway  between  92  and  102,  the 


42 


STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


standard  scores  for  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades  respec- 
tively, the  first  point  on  the  broken  line  is  located  about 
halfway  between  the  sixth-  and  seventh-grade  hnes  on  the 
vertical  line  i. 

Similarly,  in  the  first  test  his  score  for  comprehension 
was  12,  which  is  somewhat  below  the  fourth-grade  stand- 
ard. His  score  on  the  second  tests,  however,  was  quite 
equal  to  the  standard  of  the  seventh  grade. 


FIGURES 

PAUL                                                    GRADE  VI                       MADISON  CORNER  SCHOOL 

1         2         3        4         5        6        7        8         9        10       11       12      1 3       14      15   16 

8 

7 
6 

5 
4 
3 

2 
1 

/ 

\ 

/' 

\ 

^' 

■-.^ 

,. 

.^ 

^ 

// 

\  \ 
\  \ 

/ 

^s 

/ 

A 

^ 

\ 

/' 

/ 

\   \ 

/ 

> 

y' 

/ 

\ 

;/ 

/ 

\ 



/ 

/ 

/ 

SEP 

tEMB 

ER  S 

:ORE 

s  — 

JUN 

E  SC 

DRES 

Fig.  6. 


Tendencies  shown  by  the  Graphs 

The  reader's  attention  is  directed  to  the  fact  that  in  all 
the  accompanying  figures  there  is  a  tendency  for  the 
valleys  and  peaks  of  the  curve  for  the  June  test  to  flatten 
out  toward  the  horizontal.  This  represents  the  effect  of 
the  remedial  measures  taken  in  the  interim  between  Sep- 
tember and  June. 
It  will  be  noted  that  these  pupils  stood  high  in  the  four 


CONDITIONS  REVEALED 


43 


fundamental  operations  of  arithmetic  (3,  4,  5»  6,  and  7) 
and  in  Greene's  English  Organization  Test  (12),  which 
is  mostly  a  test  of  general  intelligence.  In  arithmetical 
reasoning  or  problem-solving  (11),  spelling  (8),  and  lan- 
guage (14),  they  were  near  to  grade  standards.  In  rate 
(i)  and  comprehension  (2)  of  silent  reading,  in  rate  (9) 
and  quality  (10)  of  handwriting,  in  visual  vocabulary  (13), 
and  in  the  content  subjects  (15  and  16)  each  of  these 
pupils  ranked  from  low  to  very  low. 


FIGURE  6 

GRAPH  SHOWING  AVERAGE  SCORES  OF  62   NORMAL  SEVENTH-GRADE  PUPILS 

1         2         3        4        5         6        7        8        9        10       11       12       13       14      15    16 

8 
7 
6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
1 

L_ 

y 

v:'' 

^^ 

, 

N, 

-'/ 

""- 

7 

y 

X 

' 

r\ 

S 

> 

\ 

/ 

/ 

V 

'^"' 

"""*■ 

■s. 

/ 

\ 

\ 

// 

\ 

/ 

\ 

_r> 

V. 

1 

N 

/ 

\ 

y 

SEP 

•EMB 

ER  S 

:ORE 

JUN 

E  SC( 

)RES 

Fig.  G. 

The  graphs  of  72.24  per  cent  of  all  the  normal  pupils 
above  the  third  grade  showed  the  same  tendencies  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree.^  Figure  6  is  a  sort  of  composite 
graph  of  all  the  normal  seventh-grade  pupils  in  the  district. 
They  numbered  62.  Figure  7  is  a  similar  graph  for  the 
104  normal  fourth-grade  children.     These  graphs  were 

•  In  making  this  study  the  cards  of  all  children  who  ranked  below  normal  ac- 
cording to  the  intelligcucc  tests  were  thrown  out. 


44 


STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


obtained  by  averaging  the  scores  of  the  pupils  in  each 
separate  subject  and  using  the  grades  corresponding  to  the 
averages  to  locate  the  points  on  the  graphs.  For  example, 
at  the  September  test  the  average  seventh-grade  score  for 
rate  of  silent  reading  was  95.2.  This  is  a  little  above  the 
standard  fifth-grade  score  of  93.  Hence  the  first  point  on 
the  solid  curve  in  Figure  6  is  located  just  above  the  fifth- 
grade  line.     Similarly,  the  average  of  all  the  seventh- 


FIGURE  7 

GRAPH  SHOWING  AVERAGE  SCORES  OF  104  NORMAL  FOURTH-GRADE  PUPILS 

1         2        3       4        5        6        7        8        9       10       11       12      13      14      15   16 

8 

7 
6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
1 

SEP 

rEMB 

ER  S 

:ORE 

3 

JUN 

E  SC 

)RES 

^ 

^ 

>-^^ 

_      i 

y       J 

^'' 

-7 

^. 

N 

^*' 

\ 

/ 
/ 

V 

'" 

/ 

/  / 

\ 

/ 

\ 

^ 

t 

Fig.  7. 

grade  scores  in  comprehension  of  reading  was  17.8.  Since 
this  is  about  two-thirds  of  the  way  from  the  fourth-grade 
standard  toward  that  of  the  fifth  grade,  the  second  point 
is  located  two-thirds  of  the  way  between  the  fourth-  and 
fifth-grade  Hnes. 

The  Search  for  Causes;  Over-Emphasis  on 

Arithmetic 

Having  observed  in  the  graphs  these  general  tendencies 

of  which  I  have  spoken,  I  next  made  a  survey  of  the  time- 


CONDITIONS  REVEALED  45 

tables  and  teaching  methods  in  vogue  in  the  district  in 
order  to  formulate  reasonable  hypotheses  to  account  for 
the  conditions  thus  revealed  and  in  order  to  aid  in  planning 
remedial  measures. 

The  universally  high  scores  in  all  the  tested  phases  of 
arithmetic  were  indicative  of  over-emphasis  on  this  sub- 
ject. The  time-tables  showed  the  relatively  large  amount 
of  time  assigned  to  arithmetic.  The  idea  seems  to  be 
prevalent  among  teachers,  pupils,  and  parents  that  arith- 
metic is  the  all-important  subject.  These  schools  are  no 
doubt  typical  of  the  schools  in  small  rural  communities. 
Moreover,  being  widely  scattered,  they  have  little  com- 
munication with  each  other.  It  would  seem,  therefore, 
that  the  results  of  this  study  fairly  represent  conditions  in 
most  of  the  smaller  rural  schools  where  standardized  tests 
have  not  been  used  and  where  their  diagnostic  values  have 
not  been  realized. 

I  am  aware  that  these  findings  are  contrary  to  those  of 
more  eminent  workers  who  have  found  arithmetic  to  be  a 
subject  in  which  pupils  usually  grade  low  when  measured 
by  standardized  tests.  Possible  reasons  for  this  difference 
may  be  (i)  that  the  results  from  all  the  pupils  were  con- 
sidered instead  of  only  the  normal  ones  and  (2)  that  their 
tests  were  given  in  city  schools. 

This  over-emphasis  on  arithmetic  in  the  smaller  rural 
schools  is  not  an  unnatural  condition.  In  fact  there  are 
sound  reasons  for  it.  In  the  first  place,  arithmetic  is 
easier  for  the  untrained  teacher  to  teach  than  the  content 
subjects.  Fair  results  can  probably  be  obtained  with  less 
mental  effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  in  the  teaching  of 
arithmetic  than  in  the  teaching  of  history  and  geography. 
The  work  is  largely  a  matter  of  drill,  and  drill  is  easy  for 
the  teacher.  In  the  second  place,  teachers  usually  have 
more  immediately  obvious  success  in  the   teaching  of 


46  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

arithmetic.  It  is  human  nature  to  like  to  do  the  things 
in  which  we  best  succeed.  In  the  third  place,  pupils  like 
arithmetic  (a)  because  they  enjoy  good  Kvely  drill  work 
in  the  fundamentals;  (b)  because  they  do  not  feel  quite  so 
much"  at  sea"  in  preparing  an  assignment  of  the  next  ten 
problems  in  arithmetic  as  they  do  in  facing  an  assignment 
of  the  next  ten  pages  in  history  or  geography  or  physiology; 
and  (c)  because  children  like  puzzles.  The  older  pupils 
especially  enjoy  solving  the  problems  of  this  character 
which  our  textbooks  abundantly  supply.  In  the  fourth 
place,  when  it  is  left  to  the  children  to  divide  their  study 
time  among  the  different  school  subjects  —  as  has  been 
the  common  custom  in  unsupervised  rural  schools  —  an 
undue  amount  of  time  will  usually  be  spent  on  arithmetic. 
Not  knowing  what  to  do  with  improperly  assigned  lessons 
in  the  content  subjects,  but  knowing  that  they  must  keep 
busy  at  something,  children  will  turn  to  their  arithmetics 
with  which  they  feel  most  capable  of  doing  independent 
work.  Finally,  the  demands  of  parents  on  the  teacher 
that  their  children  be  "  learnt  how  to  figger  "  is  another 
factor  in  the  situation.  All  these  reasons  cooperate  in 
bringing  about  over-emphasis  on  arithmetic  in  the  rural 
schools. 

As  the  beginning  of  an  attempt  to  remedy  this  condition 
we  decided  to  reduce  for  a  while  the  time  devoted  to 
arithmetic  by  one  half  and  to  use  the  time  thus  gained  for 
subjects  in  which  the  schools  were  making  a  poor  showing. 

Other  Tendencies 

Arithmetic  was  the  only  school  subject  in  which  there  ap- 
peared a  general  tendency  to  ranlc  very  much  above  grade. 
The  only  other  markedly  high  spot  in  the  graphs  was  that 
denoting  their  grading  in  Greene's  English  Organization 
Test.    In  this  test  the  pupils  demonstrate  their  ability  or 


CONDITIONS  REVEALED  47 

lack  of  ability  to  rearrange  broken  sentences  so  as  to  make 
sense.  Here  is  a  sample  of  the  disarranged  sentences  of 
which  the  test  is  composed : 

wanted,  to  go  home,  him,  the  dog 

Since  this  is  largely  a  test  of  intelligence,  the  prevalent 
high  scores  of  the  pupils  simply  go  to  show  that  their  low 
ratings  in  subjects  other  than  arithmetic  were  not  due  to 
lack  of  mental  ability,  a  fact  also  supported  by  their  scores 
in  the  Otis  Group  Intelligence  Scale. 

The  average  scores  for  problem-solving  in  arithmetic 
were  close  to  grade  standards  for  each  grade.  The  reason 
why  the  pupils  did  not  do  as  well  in  this  particular  phase 
of  arithmetical  ability  as  they  did  in  fundamentals  will  be 
discussed  a  little  later.  Spelling  and  language  are  other 
subjects  in  which  drill  work  figures  very  prominently. 
Although  in  each  of  these  two  subjects  there  were  wide 
differences  between  the  lowest  and  highest  scores  in  each 
grade,  the  averages  were  well  up  to  or  above  standard,  as 
shown  by  the  solid  lines  in  Figures  6  and  7. 

The  Writing  Situation 

Writing  averaged  the  lowest  of  all  the  subjects  in  every 
school  but  one.  The  teacher  of  this  school  had  received 
business-college  training  and  was  good  in  muscular-move- 
ment penmanship.  The  low  averages  in  writing  led  me  to 
make  a  special  investigation  of  the  methods  of  teaching 
that  subject  in  the  district.  A  round  of  observation  con- 
vinced me,  not  only  that  the  teaching  of  writing  was  being 
neglected,  but  also  that  what  teaching  there  was  had 
little  value.  The  copy-book  method  was  in  use  in  every 
school  except  the  one  just  mentioned.  The  teachers  in 
general  did  not  know  how  to  teach  writing.  Therefore 
they  had  little  success  with  it  and  did  not  like  to  teach  it. 


48  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Upon  inquiry  as  to  how  the  writing  period  was  conducted, 
I  learned  that  in  several  cases  at  least  the  teacher  would 
simply  tell  the  pupils  to  take  their  writing-books  and  write 
for  ten  minutes.  During  this  time  she  would  sit  at  her 
desk  and  correct  papers.  At  the  end  of  the  period,  without 
even  looking  at  the  copy-books,  she  would  tell  them  to 
put  away  their  writing  materials  and  go  on  with  other 
work.  In  very  few  of  the  writing  periods  that  I  observed 
personally  was  there  any  adequate  attempt  to  teach  the 
children  how  to  write.  Is  it  strange  that  the  writing 
scores  were  disgracefully  low?  I  wonder  if  this  condition 
is  typical  of  schools  in  smaller  rural  communities  with 
untrained  teachers,  or  is  it  a  specialty  in  this  district? 

In  an  attempt  to  remedy  the  condition  I  tried  to  arouse 
the  teachers  to  its  seriousness,  and  I  introduced  a  method 
of  business  writing  into  all  the  schools.  This  was  some- 
what of  a  venture,  since  most  of  the  teachers  had  had  no 
training  in  muscular-movement  writing.  However,  they 
were  all  informed  regarding  the  correspondence  course  for 
teachers  conducted  by  the  publishers  of  the  system,  and 
were  encouraged  to  take  it.  Several  of  them  did  so,  and 
by  the  end  of  the  year  they  were  doing  passable  work  as 
teachers  of  the  new  method. 

As  a  result  of  this  radical  change  the  writing  conditions 
in  the  schools  are  now  in  a  somewhat  chaotic  condition. 
It  takes  time  to  break  up  the  old  finger-movement  habits 
and  perfect  new  ones.  Hence  the  graphs  show  little  im- 
provement in  writing  scores  for  the  year.  We  hope,  how- 
ever, that  during  the  coming  year  a  continuation  of  our 
efforts  will  produce  definite  improvement  in  the  quality  of 
handwriting. 

The  chief  difficulty  seems  to  be  to  get  the  children  to 
use  the  muscular  movement  outside  of  the  period  of  writ- 
ing drill.     Hereafter,  in  order  to  further  our  efforts,  no 


CONDITIONS  REVEALED  49 

written  work  will  be  accepted  unless  it  is  done  with  muscu- 
lar movement.  We  believe  it  is  largely  a  waste  of  time  to 
compel  a  pupil  to  write  with  muscular  movement  for  ten 
minutes  a  day  and  then  to  let  him  use  finger  movement  in 
writing  his  compositions. 

Poor  Results  in  Reading,  and  Why 

The  reading  scores  were  also  scandalously  low.  Both  the 
individual  graphs  (Figures  3,  4,  and  5)  and  the  grade 
graphs  (Figures  6  and  7)  exhibit  this  fact  in  a  striking 
manner.  Analysis  of  the  situation  furnished  several  quite 
probable  reasons  for  the  poor  showing  in  silent  reading. 

First,  the  pupils  had  not  been  taught  silent  reading. 
The  reading  drill  in  the  schools  was,  and  always  had  been, 
oral.  Only  two  or  three  of  the  teachers  had  any  concep- 
tion of  what  is  meant  by  silent-reading  drill.  The  oral 
reading  was  conducted  in  the  old-fashioned  way  which 
needs  no  description  —  and  mostly  in  a  slipshod  manner 
at  that.  The  fact  that  the  children  were  tested  for  silent 
reading  when  all  their  class  work  had  been  in  oral  reading 
was  probably  the  chief  reason  for  the  low  scores. 

Second,  in  most  of  the  schools  there  was  only  one  set  of 
readers  for  each  grade.  The  younger  pupils  knew  most 
of  the  stories  in  the  upper-grade  books  from  hearing  them 
read  over  and  over  by  the  older  pupils.  The  fact  that 
they  knew  the  gist  of  these  stories  long  before  they  ever 
reached  the  grades  in  which  the  books  were  used,  that 
they  had  "  studied  "  the  lesson  over  several  times  at  their 
seats  (perhaps),  and  that  each  pupil  was  provided  with  a 
book  in  class,  precluded  any  chance  for  real,  Hve  interest 
in  the  class  work.  Many  of  the  teachers,  even,  did  not 
seem  to  be  over-enthusiastic. 

Third,  the  low  scores  resulting  from  the  use  of  Thorn- 
dike's  Visual  Vocabulary  Tests  indicate  that  lack  of  word 


50  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

knowledge  probably  accounted  to  a  large  degree  for  the 
poor  results  in  reading.  It  may  well  be  that  the  narrow 
range  of  reading,  due  to  lack  of  variety  in  books  and  to  the 
conspicuous  absence  of  school  Hbraries,  was  responsible 
for  the  limited  reading  vocabularies  of  the  children. 

In  the  light  of  the  above-described  conditions  the  low 
scores  in  content  subjects  need  little  explanation.  Success 
in  history,  geography,  etc.,  depends  on  ability  to  study 
effectively.  Efl5cient  study  is  efficient  silent  reading. 
Even  in  arithmetic,  much  if  not  most  of  the  difficulty  en- 
countered by  the  pupils  in  solving  problems  lies  in  their 
inability  to  read  and  understand  them  as  they  appear  in 
the  text.  Poor  ability  in  silent  reading,  then,  helps  to 
explain  why  the  scores  in  the  problem-solving  phase  of 
arithmetic  were  so  much  lower  than  those  in  the  funda- 
mental operations. 

A  New  Policy  as  to  Reading 

These  matters  were  brought  to  the  attention  of  the 
teachers.  They  readily  concluded  that  reading  is  the 
most  important  subject  in  the  school,  because  upon  it 
depends  success  in  most  of  the  other  subjects.  We  there- 
fore decided  to  give  reading  a  place  in  the  program  com- 
mensurate with  its  importance.  For  the  rest  of  the  year 
most  of  the  reading  time  was  devoted  to  intensive  drill 
in  silent  reading.  Different  methods  of  conducting  this 
drill  were  devised  in  order  to  furnish  variety  and  in  order 
to  keep  interest  alive.  Much  of  the  work  in  geography, 
history,  physiology,  civics,  etc.,  was  taken  up  as  class  drill 
in  silent  reading.  Oral  quizzes  every  few  days  by  way  of 
review  in  these  subjects  took  the  place  of  the  customary 
daily  question-and-answer  recitation.  In  this  way  the 
time  usually  available  for  reading  drill  was  quadrupled. 
Did  30  much  reading  drill  get  monotonous?    The  chil- 


CONDITIONS  REVEALED  51 

dren  will  testify  that  it  did  not.  Did  the  content  subjects 
suffer  from  giving  up  so  much  seat  study  and  question- 
and-answer  recitation?  The  graphs  clearly  indicate  the 
answer. 

We  adopted  also  a  definite  policy  of  vocabulary  building. 
New  words  were  constantly  introduced  to  the  pupils  by 
psychological  methods.  They  were  introduced  as  the 
names  of  ideas  after  the  ideas  themselves  had  been  vividly 
brought  to  their  attention  by  objects,  pictures,  or  lively 
descriptions. 

The  number  of  reading  books  in  the  schools  was  multi- 
plied by  ten  or  twelve,  and  a  generous  beginning  of  school 
libraries  was  made.  For  the  most  part  the  new  books 
were  informational  rather  than  merely  entertaining.  Yet 
they  were  books  that  appeal  to  children  —  and,  indeed, 
they  did  appeal  to  them.  Our  difficulty  now  is  not  in 
getting  the  pupils  to  read,  but  in  getting  them  to  do  any- 
thing else  but  read. 

What  did  it  all  amount  to?  Well,  look  at  the  broken 
lines  in  the  preceding  figures.  They  speak  for  themselves. 
They  are  the  graphs  of  the  same  pupils  and  of  the  same 
grades  at  the  end  of  the  school  year. 


CHAPTER  VI 

MEASURING  THE  PROGRESS  OF  PUPILS  BY 
MEANS  OF  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Teachers'  Judgments  of  Progress  Unsatisfactory 

From  time  out  of  mind  the  estimate  of  a  pupil's  progress  in 
his  school  work  has  been  left  to  the  more  or  less  excellent 
judgment  of  his  teacher,  a  judgment  often  warped  by 
personal  prejudice  due  to  his  behavior  in  school,  his  per- 
sonal appearance,  or  his  father's  standing  in  the  commun- 
ity. The  fact  that  the  teacher  gave  tests  and  ranked  the 
child  on  the  quality  of  his  reactions  to  them  does  not 
necessitate  a  modification  of  the  above  statement.  For 
those  tests  were  based  solely  on  what  she  judged  the  child 
ought  to  know  concerning  the  various  school  subjects  as  a 
result  of  her  particular  line  of  instruction.  She  had  no 
way  of  knowing  definitely  what  a  child  of  his  age  and  grade 
really  ought  to  know  in  order  to  be  as  well  informed  as 
other  children  of  his  age  and  grade  in  other  schools.  Even 
the  grading  of  the  papers,  after  they  were  corrected,  was 
mostly  a  matter  of  judgment,  as  has  been  previously 
shown. 

Some  of  the  more  unthinking  teachers  took  the  testing 
and  grading  very  seriously,  marked  the  papers  very  care- 
fully on  a  percentage  basis,  and  then  "  passed  "  the  pupil 
or  "  flunked  "  him  according  to  whether  his  mark  was  70 
or  only  69.  Others,  realizing  more  or  less  vaguely  the 
injustice  of  such  a  procedure,  graded  the  pupils'  work  as 
excellent,  good,  fair,  poor,  or  very  poor,  which  they  could 
probably  have  done  just  as  accurately  without  gi\'ing 
any  tests  for  grading  purposes  at  all. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  PUPILS  53 

Standardized  Tests  used  to  Measu^  Progress 

But  there  is  no  longer  any  valid  excuse  for  such  hap- 
hazard methods  of  measuring  the  results  of  teaching  in 
elementary  schools.  The  standardized  tests  and  scales 
furnish  us  with  definite  norms  of  achievement  by  means  of 
which  we  can  compare  any  child's  work  with  the  median 
or  average  for  his  age  or  grade  and  decide  justly  as  to 
whether  or  not  he  is  making  normal  progress. 

One  of  my  purposes  in  using  tests  has  been  to  measure 
the  progress  of  pupils  in  their  studies.  Thus  far  ^  we  have 
given  the  tests  four  times  in  all  the  schools  of  the  district. 
They  have  been  given  at  intervals  of  several  months  so  as 
to  permit  progress  between  tests  to  show  plainly  in  the 
graphs.  Three  of  these  test  periods  —  the  ones  particu- 
larly of  interest  in  this  chapter —  fell  within  the  school  year 
1919-20.  All  of  the  data  from  these  several  tests  were 
graphically  recorded  and  filed.  The  records  are  very 
interesting  and  highly  satisfactory  so  far  as  proof  of  the 
efficiency  of  this  method  of  measurement  of  progress  is 
concerned,  although,  of  course,  they  do  not  always  show 
satisfactory  progress  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 

As  heretofore  stated,  our  plan  is  to  give  standardized 
tests  in  as  many  of  the  elementary-school  subjects  as 
possible  to  all  the  pupils  in  the  district  three  times  a  year. 
They  were  given  first  in  September,  1919,  for  grading 
purposes  and  to  get  a  starting-point  from  which  to  meas- 
ure progress.  In  February,  1920,  the  tests  were  given 
again  in  order  to  find  out  how  the  pupils  were  progressing 
and  particularly  to  discover  along  what  lines,  if  any, 
unsatisfactory  progress  was  being  made,  so  that  the  teach- 
ers might  see  where  increased  effort  or  change  of  method 

•  This  chapter  was  written  some  time  after  the  preceding  chapters. 


54  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

was  needed.    In  June,  1920,  they  were  given  a  third  time 
<for  promotion  purposes. 

The  scores  of  the  individual  pupils  in  these  tests  were 
first  recorded  on  4  X  6  cards  in  the  form  of  graphs.  Each 
time  a  new  test  was  given  a  new  graph  was  drawn  on  each 
pupil's  card  in  a  different  color,  so  that  at  the  end  of  June 
I  had,  for  each  pupil  in  the  district  above  the  first  grade, 
a  graph  card  which  showed  at  a  glance  his  standing  in  all 
the  subjects  tested  for  three  different  periods  in  the  school 
year.  Each  teacher  had  duplicate  cards  for  the  pupils  of 
her  particular  school. 

The  Graph  Card 

More  recently,  however,  I  have  devised  and  had 
printed  a  5  X  8  graph  card  which  is  considerably  more 
convenient  than  the  makeshift  in  use  last  year.^  The 
graphs  reproduced  in  this  chapter  are  shown  on  the  new 
form  (Figures  8  to  11).  This  new  card  contains  not  only 
the  names  of  the  tests,  but  also  the  standard  scores  for 
each  of  them.  Directly  below  the  name  of  each  test  is  a 
vertical  line  upon  which  the  standard  scores  for  that  test 
are  printed  at  the  intersections  of  the  vertical  line  with  the 
horizontal  grade  lines.  For  instance,  the  sixth-grade 
standard  score  for  comprehension  in  Monroe's  Silent 
Reading  Test  is  21.  Accordingly,  this  number  is  printed 
at  the  intersection  of  the  sixth-grade  fine  with  the  vertical 
line  below  "  Comprehension  "  and  under  the  name  of  that 
test.  The  fourth-grade  standard  score  for  Woody's  Divi- 
sion Scale  is  5.  The  figure  5  is  therefore  printed  at  the 
intersection  of  the  fourth-grade  line  with  the  vertical 
line  directly  beneath  ''D"  under  "Arithmetic- Woody." 

1  A  still  more  recent  edition  of  these  cards  has  been  published  as  the  "Brooks 
Individual  Graph-Record  Card."  These  cards  may  be  obtained,  in  any  desired 
quantity,  from  the  J.  L.  Hammett  Co.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  PUPILS  55 

Since  in  the  Ayres  Spelling  Scale  and  in  the  Hahn-Lackey 
Geography  Scale  the  standard  scores  for  any  particular 
grade  vary  with  the  column  used  for  testing,  no  scores 
could  be  printed  for  these  tests.  So,  merely  for  con- 
venience, the  Roman  numerals  marking  the  grade  lines 
were  repeated  at  their  intersections  with  the  verticals  for 
these  two  tests.  The  lowest  score  on  any  test  line  shows 
the  lowest  grade  in  which  that  test  is  given.  For  example, 
Woody's  Division  Scale  is  not  given  below  the  third  grade. 
Hence,  the  lowest  score  for  this  test  (3)  is  on  the  third- 
grade  line.  Similarly,  Starch's  History  Test  is  not  given 
below  the  sixth  grade. 

Figures  8,  9,  and  10  are  copies  of  the  graph  records  of 
three  dilTerent  children  for  the  school  year  1919-20.  All 
three  were  taught  by  the  same  teaclier  throughout  the 
year.  The  graphs  are  given  with  explanations  and  com- 
ments for  the  purpose  of  showing  a  method  of  recording 
results  so  as  to  indicate  at  a  glance  how  the  pupils  were 
progressing  in  their  school  work  and  when  they  were  ready 
for  promotion. 

The  Record  of  a  Child  of  Average  Mentality 

Figure  8  shows  the  record  of  an  eleven-year-old  girl  of 
about  average  mentality.  Her  mental  age  (M.A.)  was 
eleven  years,  seven  months,  and  her  intelligence  quotient 
(I.Q.)  was  105.  Hence  she  is  a  little  above  the  average  in 
intelligence.  Her  graph,  resulting  from  the  September 
tests  and  represented  by  the  dotted  line  in  Figure  8,  falls 
about  equally  above  and  below  the  fourth-grade  line. 
That  is,  she  averaged  about  fourth-grade  (end  of  year) 
ability  in  the  tested  subjects  at  the  beginning  of  the  school 
year.  Hence  she  was  placed  in  the  class  that  was  be- 
ginning fifth-grade  work,  namely,  the  fifth  grade  according 
to  the  plan  discussed  in  chapter  rv.     The  dashed  line 


56  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

represents  the  scores  of  the  same  child  from  the  February- 
tests  and  the  solid  line  those  from  the  June  tests.  The 
progress  of  the  child  in  her  studies  is  shown  by  tihe  higher 
levels  of  the  graphs  for  the  later  tests.  Only  two  subjects 
show  little  or  no  increase  and  those  will  be  explained  a 
little  farther  on. 

Reading.  Let  us  consider  separately  the  progress  made 
by  this  pupil  in  each  subject,  beginning  with  reading.  I 
depend  mainly  on  Monroe's  test  for  measuring  silent- 
reading  ability.  It  is  well  standardized,  perfectly  ob- 
jective, eliminates  the  memory  factor,  and  is,  to  my  mind, 
best  fitted  for  my  particular  scheme.  The  pupil's  score 
for  rate  of  silent  reading  in  September  was  80.  The  first 
point,  therefore,  on  the  September  curve  was  plotted  at 
the  intersection  of  the  fourth-grade  line  with  the  test  line, 
80  being  the  fourth-grade  standard  score  as  shown  on  the 
card.  Her  score  for  comprehension  was  17,  which  is  half- 
way between  the  standard  scores  for  the  fourth  and  fifth 
grades.  Hence  the  second  point  on  the  September  graph 
is  located  halfway  between  the  fourth-  and  fifth-grade 
lines.  Now  note  the  space  between  the  two  points  just 
located  and  the  corresponding  points  on  the  dashed  curve. 
This  space  shows  the  progress  made  by  the  pupil  in  silent 
reading  during  the  first  half  of  the  school  year  in  relation 
to  normal  annual  progress  represented  by  the  distance 
between  the  two  grade  lines.  The  advance  in  rate  of  read- 
ing is  particularly  marked,  covering  as  it  does  the  space  of 
a  grade  and  a  quarter  in  a  half-year.  The  advance  made 
in  comprehension  is  normal;  that  is,  a  half -grade  of  prog- 
ress in  a  half-year  of  work. 

As  shown  by  the  corresponding  points  on  the  solid-line 
curve,  the  pupil's  rate  of  reading  increased  very  little 
during  the  last  half  of  the  year,  while  progress  in  ability  to 
comprehend  what  was  read  continued  to  be  normal.    The 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  PUPILS  57 

rapid  increase  in  rate  of  reading  was  undoubtedly  due  to 
the  special  emphasis  placed  on  efficient  silent-reading  drill 
which  was  inaugurated  in  the  fall  term  and  continued 
throughout  the  year.  There  had  never  before  been  any 
such  drill  in  any  of  the  schools.  For  the  year,  this  child's 
progress  was  a  grade  and  a  half,  or  fifty  per  cent  above 
normal,  in  rate  of  reading  and  just  a  grade,  or  normal,  in 
comprehension. 

Arithmetic.  On  the  addition  line,  note  the  drop  of  the 
February  curve  below  the  one  for  September.  There 
might  be  several  reasons  for  this,  the  most  plausible  being 
that  the  child  was  tired  or  not  feeling  well  at  the  time  that 
particular  test  was  given  in  February.  This  surmise  is 
supported  by  the  fact  that  she  "  came  back  "  strong  in  the 
June  tests  and  showed  a  half-grade  of  progress  for  the  year 
in  addition  ability. 

Little  progress  was  shown  in  subtraction  ability;  none 
at  all  for  the  first  half  of  the  year.  But  you  will  note  that 
she  was  already  up  to  fifth  grade  in  both  subtraction  and 
addition  at  the  beginning  of  the  year.  When  a  child's 
graph  shows  that  he  is  well  up  to  or  above  grade  in  any 
subject,  the  time  and  eiTort  of  that  child  is  diverted  to 
some  subject  in  which  he  is  below  grade.  One  of  the  chief 
values  of  the  tests  is  their  diagnostic  value  in  showing  up 
the  weak  and  strong  places  in  the  work  of  pupils  or  classes 
so  that  the  teacher  and  superintendent  may  know  where 
their  efiforts  should  be  concentrated  in  order  to  bring  about 
results  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible.  The  tendency  of  the 
graphs  to  flatten  out  and  more  nearly  approximate  a 
straight  line  toward  the  end  of  the  year  is  the  direct  result 
of  this  poHcy  of  placing  the  emphasis  where  it  is  most 
needed,  the  places  where  it  is  most  needed  being  indicated 
by  the  earlier  graphs.  The  ideal  curve  would,  of  course, 
be  a  straight  Une,  denoting  ability  exactly  equal  to  the 


58 


STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


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first  coincident  with  the  fourth-grade  line  on  the  card,  the 


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THE  PROGRESS  OF  PUPILS  59 

third  coincident  with  the  fifth-grade  line,  and  the  second 
midway  between  and  parallel  to  the  others.  Such  a 
record  would  denote  absolutely  even  and  normal  progress 
for  the  year. 

One  of  the  tests  given  in  the  fall  was  the  Cleveland  Sur- 
vey Test  in  the  fundamental  operations  of  arithmetic- — ■ 
a  test  which  is  excellent  for  purposes  of  diagnosis.  This 
test  showed  this  particular  pupil  to  be  especially  weak  in 
the  multiplication  and  division  of  fractions,  decimals,  and 
denominate  numbers.  Special  corrective  drill  on  these 
phases  of  arithmetic  was  responsible  for  the  splendid 
progress  shown  on  the  multiplication  and  division  lines. 

Note  the  very  low  score  made  in  the  mixed  fundamentals 
test  in  September,  the  excellent  progress  made  during  the 
year,  and  the  fact  that  in  spite  of  such  progress  the  pupil 
failed  to  come  up  to  grade  at  the  end  of  the  year.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  only  eight  pupils  in  the  whole  district 
have  so  far  succeeded  in  getting  as  high  grades  in  this  test 
as  they  averaged  in  the  four  fundamental  operations, 
although  the  test  is  made  up  of  a  mixture  of  the  identical 
examples  used  in  the  addition,  subtraction,  multipHcation, 
and  division  tests.  Most  of  them  fall  below  from  half  a 
grade  to  a  whole  grade.  A  study  of  Figures  9,  10,  and  11 
reveals  the  same  facts  concerning  the  results  from  this  test. 
Although  good  progress  is  made  in  every  case,  the  pupil  or 
class  persistently  grades  lower  in  this  test  than  in  the 
others  on  fundamentals  of  arithmetic.  To  my  mind  this 
indicates  that  the  standard  scores  for  this  test  are  too 
high. 

Continuing  the  examination  of  Figure  8,  we  find  Mon- 
roe's Reasoning  Test  in  Arithmetic  to  be  the  next  in  order. 
This  test  is  scored  for  three  things:  rate  of  solving  prob- 
lems, solutions  correct  in  principle,  and  correct  answers. 
Good  progress  is  shown  for  the  year  in  all  three  although 


6o  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

the  pupil  fails  to  reach  the  grade  standard  for  speed  in 
solving  problems. 

Spelling.  In  spelling  ability  the  pupil  accomplished 
twenty-five  per  cent  more  than  a  normal  year's  progress, 
with  nearly  four  times  as  great  progress  made  in  the  last 
half  of  the  year  as  in  the  first  half.  And  here  is  a  chance 
for  some  more  interesting  comparisons  of  the  graphs  on 
the  different  cards.  Figure  9  shows  no  progress  in  spelling 
in  the  first  half;  Figure  10  shows  the  same;  while  Figure  11, 
which  is  the  record  of  a  whole  fifth  grade,  shows  consider- 
ably more  progress  in  the  last  half  than  in  the  first.  The 
midyear  tests  revealed  the  fact  that  spelling  work  in 
general  was  progressing  unsatisfactorily.  As  remedial 
measures,  oral  spelHng  drill,  together  with  Buckwalter's 
Comprehensive  Speller,  was  thrown  into  the  discard. 
Ayres's  Spelling  Scale,  supplemented  by  individual  spell- 
ing lists  made  up  of  troublesome  words  from  the  pupils' 
own  written  vocabularies,  was  made  the  basis  of  the  spell- 
ing course.  A  little  booklet  containing  graded  lists  of 
1600  "  Common  Blunder  Words  "  was  also  used  in  most 
of  the  schools.  Spelling  lessons  were  shortened;  new 
words  were  presented  by  a  more  psychological  method; 
and  the  recitation  consisted  of  a  written  lesson  wherein 
the  pupils  use  the  words  of  the  day's  lesson  in  sentences 
or  in  a  short  composition.  The  efficacy  of  these  changes  in 
subject  matter  and  method  is  strikingly  evidenced  by  tlie 
greatly  increased  progress  during  the  last  half  of  the  year. 

Handwriting.  Next  comes  handwriting.  This  pupil's 
scores  in  writing  (Figure  8)  are  typical  of  the  general  condi- 
tions revealed  by  the  tests  as  discussed  in  chapter  v;  speed 
scores  up  to  or  much  above  grade  and  quality  scores  very 
low.  Although  this  pupil  showed  considerable  progress 
for  the  year,  she  failed  to  reach  the  grade  standard  in  qual- 
ity of  handwriting.     But  she  did  better  than  most  of  the 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  PUPILS  6i 

pupils  in  this  respect.  Note  that,  throughout  the  year, 
her  speed  decreased  while  her  quality  increased.  In  the 
past,  speed  had  been  attained  at  the  expense  of  quality. 
Now  quality  has  been  gained  at  the  sacrifice  of  speed,  and 
yet  speed  has  not  been  reduced  below  the  grade  standard. 
Figure  9  also  shows  the  fact  that  quality  improved  at  the 
expense  of  speed.  In  most  other  cases,  however,  speed 
increased  at  approximately  the  same  rate  as  quality,  and 
the  pupils  were  about  as  far  behind  in  writing  at  the  end  of 
the  year  as  they  were  at  the  beginning.  All  four  of  the 
records  presented  in  this  chapter  show  an  improvement  in 
handwriting  for  the  year  considerably  above  the  average 
for  the  district.  In  general  the  improvement  in  writing 
ability  was  small.  The  reasons  for  the  conditions  found  to 
exist  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  and  the  general  lack  of 
progress  during  the  year  have  already  been  discussed. 

English.  As  for  language  and  grammar,  so  far  as  the 
author  is  aware,  no  satisfactory  general  test  or  scale  has 
been  standardized.  One  of  our  greatest  needs  at  present 
in  carrying  out  a  complete  testing  program  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  is  a  general  language  and  grammar  test 
somewhat  on  the  same  plan  as  the  Hahn-Lackey  Geogra- 
phy Scale.  Starch's  Punctuation  Scale  is  good  for  measur- 
ing ability  in  that  particular.  Charters  Diagnostic  Lan- 
guage and  Grammar  Tests  are  excellent  as  far  as  they  go, 
and  they  cover  pretty  well  the  common  errors  in  the  use  of 
the  English  language.  But  no  standards  were  available 
for  them  last  year,  so  that  they  did  not  fit  into  a  scheme 
which  required  tests  that  have  been  fairly  well  standard- 
ized.^ Hence  we  could  do  little  in  testing  language  and 
grammar  ability  last  year.  The  two  tests  used,  namely, 
Greene's   English    Organization    Test   and    Thorndike's 

•  Standard  scores  for  these  tests  are  now  available  and  we  are  using  them  as  a 
part  of  our  testing  program. 


62  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Visual  Vocabulary  Test  might  perhaps  more  properly  be 
placed  under  the  head  of  reading.  The  English  Organiza- 
tion Test  proved  rather  unsatisfactory.  It  does  not  seem 
to  measure  any  definite  ability.  Its  chief  value  seems  to 
be  in  indicating,  to  some  extent,  a  pupil's  general  intelli- 
gence or  general  reasoning  ability,  if  there  is  such  a  thing, 
and  even  in  this  I  have  not  found  it  to  agree  very  well  with 
the  results  of  regular  intelligence  tests. 

The  vocabulary  test,  however,  has  proved  very  valuable, 
especially  in  interpreting  silent  reading  scores.  There  is  a 
high  degree  of  correlation  between  the  scores  in  the  vocab- 
ulary test  and  those  of  comprehension  in  silent  reading  if 
the  scores  of  children  much  below  normal  are  thrown  out. 
When  a  normal  child  fails  in  comprehension  of  silent  read- 
ing, an  examination  of  his  vocabulary  scores  will  often 
show  a  serious  lack  of  word  knowledge,  which  can  be  reme- 
died by  a  definite  plan  of  vocabulary  building.  To  such  a 
policy  is  due  the  excellent  progress  as  regards  vocabulary 
knowledge  shown  by  the  pupil  represented  in  Figure  8, 
This  progress  is  shown  by  the  curves  to  be  from  fourth- 
grade  ability  in  September  to  halfway  between  fifth-  and 
sixth-grade  ability  in  June.  Notice  that  this  is  also  the 
highest  point  reached  in  the  silent  reading  scores.  This 
test  likewise  measures  the  efficiency  of  whatever  method  of 
vocabulary  building  may  be  adopted. 

Content  subjects.  Highly  satisfactory  in  amount  and 
uniformity  was  the  progress  in  geography  and  history,  as 
shown  in  Figures  8,  9,  and  11,  although  for  some  reason 
the  history  scores  persistently  lagged  behind  those  in 
geography. 

General  progress.  As  before  mentioned,  Figure  8  is  the 
record  of  a  pupil  a  little  above  the  average  in  intelligence 
and  her  record  shows  on  the  average,  a  little  more  than  a 
normal  year  of  progress;  which  is  as  it  should  be.    Further- 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  PUPILS  63 

more,  her  progress  was  in  the  direction  of  a  more  uniform 
ability  in  all  subjects.  The  June  curve  is  35  per  cent 
shorter  than  the  September  curve  as  shown  in  Figure  12 
(a),  thus  approaching  much  nearer  the  ideal  curve.  This 
fact  exemplifies  the  value  of  corrective  measures  based  on 
diagnosis  by  standardized  tests. 

These  records  are  also  used  for  promotion  purposes. 
When  a  child's  graph  has  moved  upward  over  a  space  ap- 
proximately equal  to  the  distance  between  two  grade  lines 
he  is  ready  to  be  promoted  to  the  next  grade.  As  before 
stated,  the  pupil  whose  record  is  shown  in  Figure  8  was 
started  on  fifth-grade  work  at  the  beginning  of  the  school 
year.  Her  graph  has  moved  upward,  as  shown  by  the 
solid-line  curve,  until  it  averages  better  than  fifth  grade. 
This  shows  that  she  had  attained  fifth-grade  end-of-the- 
year  standards  in  June  and  was  ready  for  promotion  to  the 
sixth  grade  and  to  begin  work  in  that  grade  the  following 
September. 

The  Record  of  a  Bright  Child 

Figure  9  shows  the  record  of  a  very  bright  eleven-year- 
old  girl  with  a  mental  age  of  fifteen  years  and  an  I.Q.  of 
135.  Although  her  graph  showed  an  average  of  sixth- 
grade  abilit}^  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  it  was  consid- 
ered wisest,  because  of  her  youth  and  because  of  various 
changes  in  the  course  of  study,  to  have  her  take  the  regular 
sixth-grade  work  for  that  year  and  to  prepare  herself  for 
double  promotion  by  taking  part  of  the  seventh-grade 
work.  Her  chart  shows  a  progress  of  from  half  a  grade  in 
rate  of  silent  reading  and  spelling  to  two  and  a  half  grades 
in  multiplication.  In  the  June  tests,  as  shown  by  the 
solid-line  curve,  she  averaged  halfway  between  seventh- 
and  eighth-grade  standards  and  was  promoted  to  the 
eighth  grade.     Whatever  of  seventh-grade  work  she  did 


64 


STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


not  take  along  with  the  sixth-grade  work,  she  will  take  up 
in  the  eighth  grade,  thus  losing  nothing  of  subject-matter 
and  gaining  a  whole  year's  time.    Figure  12  (b)  shows  the 


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65 


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66  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

The  Record  of  a  Dull  Child 

Figure  io  gives  the  record  of  a  very  dull  boy  with  a 
chronological  age  of  thirteen  years,  a  mental  age  of  nine 
years  ten  months,  and  an  I.Q.  of  76.  Note  the  great 
irregularity  of  the  September  curve  and  the  general  lack 
of  progress  throughout  the  year.  Note  that  in  many 
instances  the  scores  of  later  tests  fall  below  those  of  previ- 
ous ones,  and  that  the  reading  scores  are  much  lower  than 
the  vocabulary  scores  indicating  that  poor  reading  may  be 
due  to  lack  of  native  ability  and  not  to  lack  of  word 
knowledge.  This  boy  fell  so  far  short  of  reaching  fourth- 
grade  standards  in  the  June  tests  that  he  was  not  promoted 
to  the  fifth  grade.  He  was  already  two  years  retarded. 
Question:  Did  we  do  right  in  retarding  this  child  another 
year?  Problem:  What  to  do  with  cases  of  this  kind  in 
rural  schools  where  special  classes  are  out  of  the  question, 
where  manual  trade  schools  are  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
pupils,  when  promotion  means  placing  the  pupil  wholly 
out  of  his  depth,  and  when  retardation  means  discourage- 
ment. This  boy  will  probably  never  get  beyond  the 
fourth  or  fifth  grade  except  through  mistaken  charity. 
Would  it  not  be  well  to  have  some  provision  whereby  such 
hopelessly  retarded  children  could  be  permitted  to  leave 
school  and  engage  in  some  useful  and  profitable  work  under 
the  guidance  of  parents  or  other  responsible  persons,  at 
least  until  society  becomes  sufficiently  civilized  to  make 
provision  at  public  expense  for  the  proper  training  of  such 
individuals?  They  would  at  least  be  saved  from  forming 
habits  of  failure  and  idleness  which  so  many  such  children 
acquire  during  years  of  forced  attendance  at  school  after 
they  have  reached  the  limits  of  their  mental  capacities  in 
ac(:[uiring  knowledge  from  books.  Figure  12  (c)  shows  the 
relative  lengths  of  this  pupil's  September  and  June  curves. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  PUPILS 


67 


It  should  be  remembered  that  all  three  of  the  pupils  whose 
records  we  have  been  discussing  were  taught  by  the  same 
teacher  and  no  doubt  in  much  the  same  way. 


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68 


STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


The  Record  of  a  Class 

Figure  ii  is  the  record  of  a  fifth  grade  containing  nine 
pupils.  It  shows  that  the  entire  grade  has  made  normal 
progress  or  better  in  nearly  every  test.  As  usual,  how- 
ever, the  class  is  weak  in  quality  of  handwriting.  It  is 
also  shghtly  below  grade  in  arithmetical  reasoning,  in 
mixed  fundamentals,  in  spelling,  and  in  geography.     On 

Percent 


(a)  Sept. 
June 

(b)  Sept. 
June 

(c)  Sept. 
June 

(d)  Sept. 
June 

1 

0    2 

O     3 

O     4 

O     5 

O     6 

O     7 

O    8 

o   e 

O  100 

FiQ.  12.  A  Comparison  of  the  Lengths  of  September  and  June 
Curves  as  Shown  in  Figures  8  to  11 


the  other  hand,  the  class  is  considerably  above  standard 
in  reading,  in  the  fundamentals  of  arithmetic,  in  speed  of 
writing,  and  in  language  and  grammar.  On  the  whole  it 
shows  that  both  teachers  and  pupils  have  done  excellent 
work  throughout  the  year.  Relative  lengths  of  Septem- 
ber and  June  curves  are  shown  in  Figure  12  {d).  The  June 
curve  is  about  twenty  per  cent  shorter  than  the  September 
curve. 


CHAPTER  VII 

MEASURING  THE   EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS 
BY  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

In  chapter  vi  I  told  how  we  used  standardized  tests  and 
scales  to  measure  the  progress  of  pupils  and  to  tell  when 
they  were  ready  for  promotion.  In  this  chapter  I  shall 
show  how,  at  the  same  time,  we  were  measuring  the  ability 
of  the  teachers  to  get  results. 

Factors  in  Teaching  Ability 

Besides  knowledge  of  subject-matter,  one  may  recognize 
five  main  factors  in  a  teacher's  efficiency:  (i)  managing 
ability;  (2)  natural  aptitude  for  the  work;  (3)  method  and 
technique  of  teaching;  (4)  interest  and  industry  in  her 
work;  and  (5)  that  vague  thing,  personality,  somewhat 
indefinable,  but  generally  admitted  to  include  character, 
temperament,  personal  appearance,  manners,  tact,  etc. 
A  teacher  must  demonstrate  ability  to  organize  and  man- 
age a  school  in  an  orderly  manner  before  any  of  her  other 
abilities  can  do  their  work.  With  all  the  other  factors 
present,  a  teacher's  success  can  be  but  mediocre  if  she 
lacks  greatly  in  natural  ability  as  applied  to  teaching. 
She  may  have  all  the  other  virtues,  but  if  she  lacks  enthu- 
siasm and  industry  she  cannot  inspire  her  pupils;  and 
without  an  efficient  method  her  other  qualities  will  be 
ineffective.  Finally,  her  personal  qualities,  ideals,  and 
conduct  must  be  worthy  of  emulation  if  she  expects  to 
influence  properly  the  social  and  moral  life  of  her  pupils. 

Measuring  Teaching  Efficiency  by  Results 

Now  no  one  of  these  factors  can  be  accurately  and  objec- 
tively measured  independently  of  all  the  others;  but  they 


70  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

all  function  cooperatively  in  getting  results  —  results 
which  are  manifested  in  the  development  of  knowledge, 
skill,  and  ideals  among  pupils.  And  many  of  these  results 
can  be  measured  by  means  of  standardized  tests. 

Is  it  not  customary  to  measure  the  efficiency  of  the 
workman,  professional  or  otherwise,  by  the  amount  and 
quality  of  the  work  he  turns  out?  The  efficiency  of  the 
wood-chopper  is  gauged  by  the  number  of  cords  of  wood 
he  can  chop  in  a  definite  length  of  time;  of  a  bricklayer, 
by  the  number  of  bricks  he  can  lay  in  a  day;  of  a  farmer, 
by  the  per-acre  yield  and  profit  of  his  crops;  of  the  lawyer, 
by  the  per  cent  of  cases  he  wins  for  his  clients;  of  the 
doctor,  by  the  proportion  of  cases  he  cures;  and  so  on, 
for  almost  any  Une  of  human  endeavor  we  could  mention. 
Experience  has  set  certain  standards  of  achievement  in 
every  kind  of  work  and  the  efficiency  of  the  worker  is 
judged  by  the  ratio  of  his  product  to  these  standards.  If 
he  does  only  three  fourths  as  much  as  the  standard,  he  is 
only  seventy-five  per  cent  efficient. 

Then  why  should  not  the  efficiency  of  teachers  be  meas- 
ured by  the  amount  of  work  they  turn  out?  Too  long  has 
efficiency  been  taken  for  granted  or,  at  best,  left  to  the 
judgment  of  supervisors  making  guesses  based  on  class- 
room observation,  more  or  less  perfunctory,  of  teachers' 
good  looks,  engaging  personalities,  show  of  energy  and 
enthusiasm,  evidence  of  preparation,  handling  of  super- 
visor's pet  methods,  etc.  Although  such  observation  is 
not  without  value  in  helping  to  secure  a  fair  estimate  of  a 
teacher's  ability,  it  does  not  alone  furnish  a  safe  and  sane 
basis  for  judgment;  and  any  teacher  so  judged  to  be  ineffi- 
cient has  a  right  to  complain  of  unfairness  of  treatment. 
Judgments  based  on  mere  classroom  observation  are  not 
fair  either  to  the  teachers  or  the  taxpayers.  The  reasons 
why  this  is  so  have  already  been  summarized,  but  they 
will  bear  repeating  here. 


MEASURING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS    71 

(i)  Such  observations  do  not  furnish  a  sound  basis  for 
judgment;  (2)  the  superintendent's  opinions  are  quite  apt 
to  be  colored  by  personal  prejudices  toward  an  individual 
teacher  or  her  methods;  (3)  classes  often  show  at  their 
worst  in  the  presence  of  visitors;  (4)  even  the  teacher  may- 
fail  to  do  herself  justice  under  the  critical  eye  of  the  super- 
intendent; and  (5)  classroom  observation  takes  no  account 
of  the  actual  results  the  teacher  may  be  getting.  Further- 
more, such  observation  is  not  only  unfair,  but  inaccurate. 
It  is  inaccurate  because  of  all  the  reasons  just  given,  and 
because  (a)  some  teachers  do  excellent  work  when  the 
superintendent  is  present  and  shirk  all  the  rest  of  the 
time,  and  because  {b)  if  such  teachers  do  their  own  testing, 
even  the  results  may  be  made  falsely  to  appear  satis- 
factory. 

If  the  education  of  a  child  consists  in  his  acquiring  cer- 
tain knowledge,  skills,  habits,  and  ideals  that  will  make 
him  a  useful  and  desirable  member  of  the  society  in  which 
he  lives,  and  if  teaching  is  the  proper  leading  and  directing 
of  the  child  in  utilizing  his  natural  abilities  to  acquire  these 
things  with  the  least  possible  expenditure  of  time  and 
energy,  then  why  is  it  not  eminently  fair  to  all  concerned 
to  gauge  the  teacher's  efiticiency  by  measuring  at  definite 
intervals  the  progress  her  pupils  are  making  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  the  prescribed  knowledge,  skills,  habits,  and  ideals, 
provided  we  have  well-defined  standards  of  achievement 
for  each  grade  such  as  the  standardized  tests  furnish? 

Anyway,  I  put  the  question  squarely  up  to  the  teachers 
of  my  district  at  one  of  the  teachers'  meetings  held  early 
in  the  year.  They  were  asked  to  decide  whether  they 
would  prefer  to  have  the  superintendent  estimate  their 
efficiency  on  the  basis  of  what  classroom  observation  he 
could  make  in  schools  so  widely  scattered,  or  according  to 
the  progress  made  by  their  pupils  as  measured  by  stand- 
ardized tests. 


72*  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Objections  of  Teachers  to  Rating  by  Results 

As  I  had  expected,  the  question  evoked  a  lively  discussion 
and  some  well-founded  objections  were  raised.  Most  of 
the  teachers  were  ready  to  admit  the  inaccuracy  and 
unfairness  of  ordinary  methods  of  rating  teachers,  but 
insisted  that  there  was  a  large  probability  of  the  same 
weaknesses  in  the  plan  I  proposed.  Their  chief  objections 
were:  (i)  that  knowing  they  would  be  judged  by  the  results 
of  the  tests,  some  teachers  would  be  tempted  to  cheat  in 
giving  the  tests,  thereby  perhaps  gaining  a  higher  rating 
than  would  better  and  more  conscientious  teachers  who 
gave  the  tests  honestly;  (2)  that  since  there  are  in  most 
schools  a  sprinkling  of  mentally  deficient  or  even  feeble- 
minded children  who  under  the  most  efficient  teacher 
cannot  be  expected  to  make  normal  progress,  the  records 
of  such  pupils,  when  averaged  with  those  of  normal  chil- 
dren, would  seriously  and  unjustly  lower  the  rating  of 
the  teachers;  and  (3)  that  of  two  teachers  of  equal  abihty 
one  might  have  a  school  whose  pupils  averaged  so  much 
higher  in  intelligence  than  those  of  the  other  that  she 
would  undeservedly  obtain  a  much  higher  rating.  The 
majority  thought  that,  if  these  principal  objections  could 
be  satisfactorily  disposed  of,  the  plan  would  be  worth 
trying.  The  few  teachers  who  displayed  marked  lack  of 
interest  in  the  subject  had  already  on  other  grounds  shown 
themselves  to  be  of  the  time-serving  variety.  I  therefore 
ignored  their  attitude.  But  I  wanted  the  intelligent 
acquiescence  of  the  better  teachers  in  some  sort  of  a 
reliable  teacher-rating  scheme.  , 

The  Objections  Answered 

The  first  two  objections  I  had  foreseen  and  prepared  for. 
As  to  the  first,  I  explained  that  most  of  the  tests  were 


MEASURING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS    75 

furnished  in  two  or  three  different  forms,  so  that  the  same 
forms  would  not  have  to  be  given  twice  in  the  same  year. 
This  would  obviate  the  possibiUty  of  any  teacher  driUing 
pupils  on  the  exact  contents  of  a  test,  drill  along  the 
general  lines  of  work  suggested  by  the  tests  being  not  only 
legitimate  but  desirable.  Furthermore,  I  pointed  out 
that  my  plan  of  checking  the  work  of  the  teachers  in 
giving  the  tests  would  ensure  the  immediate  discovery  of 
any  serious  attempt  at  cheating  on  the  part  of  dishonestly 
inclined  teachers  —  such  as  allowing  more  than  the 
allotted  time  for  each  test  or  giving  illegitimate  aid  to  the 
pupils  during  the  tests.  This  plan  was  for  me  to  repeat 
in  each  school  one  or  two  of  the  tests  after  the  teachers  had 
given  them  all.  Then  if  there  was  any  great  discrepancy 
between  the  results  of  the  tests  I  had  given  and  those  a 
teacher  had  given,  such  discrepancy  would  indicate  either 
dishonesty  or  gross  carelessness  in  giving  the  tests. 

The  second  objection  offered  a  good  opportunity  for  a 
discussion  of  intelligence  tests  and  their  uses.  I  passed 
around  some  samples  of  the  Otis  Group  Intelligence  Test 
and  explained  how,  by  the  use  of  such  tests,  we  could 
locate  the  pupils  who  were  mentally  incapable  of  making 
normal  progress.  The  progress  records  of  these  pupils 
could  be  thrown  out  in  calculating  the  teachers'  ratings, 
and  we  might  use  only  the  records  of  pupils  who  graded 
eighty  per  cent  of  normal  or  better  by  the  intelligence  tests. 

The  third  objection  was  one  which  had  not  before 
occurred  to  me.  I  suggested  that  we  leave  the  matter 
until  our  next  meeting  by  which  time  I  hoped  to  have  a 
satisfactory  solution. 

The  Plan  of  Rating  Teachers 

The  plan  I  finally  worked  out  and  which  was  accepted 
as  satisfactory  by  the  teachers  follows:  From  the  results 


74  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

of  the  June  tests  the  average  scores  by  grades  for  each 
test  were  to  be  calculated  for  each  school.  Each  of  these 
average  grade  scores  was  to  be  divided  by  the  correspond- 
ing standard  score,  thus  giving  the  per  cent  which  each 
grade  score  was  of  normal. 

Table  VII  illustrates  the  method  by  which  these  per 
cents  for  each  grade  were  obtained.  The  figures  opposite 
the  pupils'  numbers  are  the  rate  and  comprehension  scores 
in  reading  for  a  fifth  grade  in  the  June  tests. 

All  grade  per  cents  similarly  derived  for  each  school 
were  to  be  averaged  to  give  the  teacher's  percentage  mark. 
Then,  to  offset  the  differences  in  intelUgence  between 
schools,  if  the  average  of  the  I.Q.'s  in  a  school  was  less 
than  IOC,  the  difference  between  it  and  loo  was  to  be 
added  to  the  teacher's  mark,  and  if  the  average  of  the 
I.Q.'s  was  more  than  loo,  the  difference  was  to  be  sub- 
tracted from  the  teacher's  mark.  This  procedure  served 
in  the  one  case  to  discount  the  part  of  a  school's  progress 
that  was  due  to  superior  native  intelligence  and  in  the 
other  case  to  give  the  teacher  an  allowance  to  offset  her 
school's  mental  disabilities.  This  plan  disposed  of  the 
third  objection  mentioned  above.  Its  accuracy,  of  course, 
depends  in  large  part  on  the  degree  of  correlation  between 
the  scores  in  intelligence  tests  and  the  scores  in  achieve- 
ment tests.  That  the  correlation  is  high  will  be  shown  in  a 
subsequent  chapter.  This  scheme  does  away  with  the 
necessity  of  discarding  the  scores  of  subnormal  children  in 
calculating  the  ratings  of  teachers,  although  such  discard- 
ing would  save  considerable  work  without  materially 
affecting  results. 

FmsT  Illustration  of  the  Plan 

Below  are  given  concrete  illustrations  of  how  the  ratings 
of  several  teachers  were  obtained  at  the  end  of  the  year. 


MEASURING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS    75 

The  first  two  are  both  very  competent  and  successful 
teachers.  In  A's  school  the  average  of  the  I.Q.'s  of  all  the 
pupils  was  88.  This  school  had  thirty-two  pupils,  four 
of  whom  graded  as  feeble-minded.  Twenty  of  them  had 
I.Q.'s  of  less  than  90.     Only  five  had  I.Q.'s  over  100,  and 

TABLE  \1I.   JUNE  SCORES  OF  A  FIFTH  GRADE  IN  READING 

Pupil  Rate  Comprehension 

number 

1 108  26 

2 98  20 

3 73  14 

4 85  19 

S loi  25 

6 95  21 

7 50  8 

8 105  20 

Average 89.4  19.  i 

Standard 93  20 

Per  cent   average  score 

is  of  standard 96.1  95-5 

the  highest  was  122.  In  B's  school,  consisting  of  thirty 
pupils,  the  average  of  the  I.Q.'s  was  iii.  The  intelli- 
gence level  in  this  school  was  unusually  high,  just  as  in 
the  other  it  was  unusually  low.  There  were  no  feeble- 
minded children,  and  only  one  pupil  graded  as  very  dull. 
Eighty-three  per  cent  of  the  pupils  were  normal  or  above. 
Three  had  I.Q.'s  above  140.^ 

Table  VIII  gives  the  grade  per  cents  (computed  as 
shown  in  Table  VII)  on  each  test  in  A's  school  —  also  the 
general  average  for  the  whole  school.  The  78,  for  instance, 
at  the  top  of  the  second-grade  column  in  Table  VIII  means 
that  the  second-grade  average  score  in  rate  of  silent  read- 
ing was  78  per  cent  of  the  second-grade  standard  score. 

•  All  intelligence  tests  were  given,  corrected,  and  scored  by  the  superintendent. 


76 


STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


TABLE  VIII.    GRADE  PER  CENTS  ON  EACH  TEST  — 
TEACHER  A 


Subjects 


Grades 


II 


III 


IV 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Silent  Reading 

Rate 

Comprehension 

Addition 

Subtraction 

Multiplication 

Division 

Mixed  Fundamentals  .  . 
Arithmetical  Reasoning 

Spelling 

Writing 

Speed 

Quality 

English  Organization  . . 
Visual  Vocabulary  .  . . . 

Geography 

History 

Grade  averages 


78 
69 

85 
93 
93 

74 
72 

82 

96 
67 


81 
77 
87 
91 
92 

79 
76 
70 
80 

102 
68 
92 
83 


86 
80 
92 
93 
97 
82 

77 
73 
80 

lOI 

67 
94 
84 
82 
78 


90 
80 
92 
92 
93 
87 
80 
78 
77 

104 

65 
92 
81 
80 
72 


93 
78 
94 
93 
98 
92 
82 
81 
83 

III 
62 
88 
77 
8S 
82 


99 
85 
96 


95 
91 
88 
86 

107 
62 

94 
86 

89 
84 


84 
98 
98 
100 
97 
93 
87 
87 

109 
6S 
93 
89 
92 
90 


80.9 


82.9 


84.4 


86.6 


90-5 


92.0 


General  average,  86.3. 

In  comprehension  of  silent  reading  the  second-grade 
average  score  was  only  69  per  cent  of  the  standard  score; 
and  so  on  for  each  subject  and  for  each  grade.  There  are 
98  of  these  per  cents  in  the  table.  The  general  average  for 
the  school  was  obtained  by  adding  all  of  them  and  divid- 
ing the  sum  by  98.  The  general  average  in  this  school  was 
86.3  per  cent,  which  means  that  the  average  achievement 
of  the  school,  as  measured  by  the  standardized  tests,  was 
86.3  per  cent  of  normal.  Table  IX  gives  the  same  data 
for  B's  school.  In  this  case  the  general  average  was  108.4 
per  cent  of  normal. 
Then,  according  to  the  rating  plan  described  above: 


MEASURING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS    77 

A's  ratings  =  General  average  for  A's  school  +  (100  — 
Av.  I.Q.)  =  86.3  +  (100  -  88)  =  98.3.  And  B's  rating 
=  General  average  for  B's  school  —  (Av.  I.Q.  —  100)  = 
108.4  -  (hi  -  100)  =  97.4. 

TABLE  IX.  GRADE  PER  CENTS  ON  EACH  TEST  — 
TEACHER  B 


Subjects 


Grades 


II      III     IV 


VI     VII    VIII 


Reading 

Rate 

Comprehension 

Addition 

Subtraction 

Multiplication 

Division 

Mixed  Fundamentals  . . 
Arithmetical  Reasoning 

Spelling 

Writing 

Speed 

Quality 

English  Organization . . 
Visual  Vocabulary  . . . . 

Geography 

History 

Grade  averages 


102 

93 
107 
114 
114 

96 

94 
104 
118 


lor 
109 
112 
"3 

lOI 

98 

92 

102 

124 

90 

114 

106 


III 

104 
114 
114 
118 
104 
99 
95 
102 

123 
89 
116 
103 
104 
96 


114 

104 
114 

"3 
114 
109 
102 
99 
99 

126 

87 
114 
108 
102 

95 


117 
102 
116 
114 
119 
114 
104 
104 
105 

123 

84 
116 
108 
III 
106 


123 
109 
n8 
119 
119 
117 

"3 
no 
109 

129 

84 
116 

105 

III 
107 


122 
108 
120 
119 
121 
119 

"5 
109 

108 
131 

86 

113 
III 
114 
109 


103. 1 


105. 1 


106. 1 


106.7 


109.5 


112. 6 


II3-7 


General  average,  108.4. 

These  are  the  ratings  of  two  teachers  of  undoubted 
ability,  but  with  schools  widely  varying  in  average  intelli- 
gence and  rate  of  progress.  Yet  the  ratings  show  the 
teachers  to  be  of  about  equal  ability. 

The  difference  in  achievement  in  the  two  schools  is 
due  to  difference  in  the  average  mentality  of  the  pupils. 
It  would  be  eminently  unfair  to  expect  equal  results  with 
the  two  schools,  or  to  rate  A  as  a  poorer  teacher  tlian  B 


78 


STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


because  performance  in  A's  school  was  less  than  that  in 
B's  school. 

Second  Illustration  of  the  Plan 

Now  let  us  consider  the  cases  of  two  teachers  of  widely 
different  ability,  but  with  schools  approximately  equal  in 
size  and  in  the  average  intelhgence  of  pupils.  Teacher  C 
is  a  normal-school  graduate  with  several  years'  experience, 
but  with  apparently  little  aptitude  for  or  interest  in  the 
work  —  a  teacher  who  tries  to  teach  as  she  was  taught 
regardless  of  her  professional  training.  Teacher  D  is 
an  enthusiastic  girl  of  twenty  years  who  had  had  one  sum- 
mer term  at  normal  school  and  one  year's  experience. 

TABLE  X.  GRADE  PER  CENTS  ON  EACH  TEST  — 
TEACHER  C 


Subjects 


Reading 

Rate 

Comprehension 

Addition 

Subtraction 

Multiplication 

Division 

Mixed  Fundamentals  . . 
Arithmetical  Reasoning 

Spelling 

Writing 

Speed 

Quality 

English  Organization  .  . 

Visual  Vocabulary 

Geography 

History 


Grades 


II 


Grade  averages. 


80 
75 
84 
92 
90 
78 
73 

78 

87 
67 


/// 


80.4 


84 
81 

8S 
90 

89 
85 
74 

70 

75 

92 
70 
90 

85 


IV 


82.3 


80 
90 
89 
94 
80 

75 
74 
80 

93 
65 
90 

82 

83 
76 


VI 


82.6 


92 

85 
91 
96 
90 
82 
78 
79 


65 

95 
79 
87 
82 


VII 


85-3 


95 
90 

94 
95 

96 
88 
84 


lOI 

S8 
95 
76 
90 
80 


87. S 


General  average,  83.9 


MEASURING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS    79 

Apparently  she  got  more  out  of  her  summer  session  than 
many  do  out  of  the  whole  course.  Moreover,  she  has  the 
ability  to  adapt  her  knowledge  to  classroom  use. 

Tables  X  and  XI  give  for  the  schools  of  C  and  D  respec- 
tively the  same  kind  of  data  as  Tables  VIII  and  IX  did 
for  the  schools  of  A  and  B. 

TABLE  XI.  GRADE  PER  CENTS  ON  EACH  TEST  — 
TEACHER  D 


Subjects 


Grades 


II 


IV 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Reading 

Rate 

Comprehension 

Addition 

Subtraction 

Multiplication 

Division 

Mixed  Fundamentals  .  . 
Arithmetical  Reasoning 

Spelling 

Writing 

Speed 

Quality 

English  Organization  . . 

Visual  Vocabulary 

Geography 

History 


Grade  averages . 


95 

86 

lOO 

107 

107 

89 

87 

97 

III 
82 


96. 


94 
102 

los 
106 

94 
91 
85 
95 

117 

83 
109 

98 
97 
93 


97.8 


103 

97 
107 
107 
III 

97 
92 
88 
95 

116 
82 

107 
99 
95 
87 


98.9 


107 

97 
107 
106 
107 
102 

95 
92 
92 

119 
80 

107 
96 

104 
99 


100.7 


no 

95 

109 

107 

112 

107 

97 

97 

98 

116 

77 
109 

lOI 

103 
95 


General  average,  99.3 


The  average  of  I.Q.'s  for  C's  school  was  98.8  and  that 
for  D's  school  was  102.2.  This  is  a  slight  advantage  for 
D's  school,  but  not  nearly  enough  to  account  for  the 
difference  in  attainment  in  the  two  schools.  Calculated 
as  before. 


8o  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

C's  rating  =  83.9  +  (100  -  98.8)  =  85.1 
And  D's  rating  =  99.3  —  (102.2  —  100)  =  97.1 

Here  again  the  relative  efficiency  of  the  teachers  is 
reflected  in  the  respective  ratings  of  their  schools  when  full 
cognizance  is  taken  of  the  average  intelligence  of  the  two 
schools. 

We  use  averages  rather  than  medians  in  computing  the 
ratings  of  teachers  because  the  schools  are  small  with  few 
pupils  in  a  grade.  In  larger  schools  with  twenty  or  more 
pupils  to  a  grade  the  median  scores  could  be  as  well  used 
in  figuring  grade  per  cents.  In  such  case  one  should  not 
neglect  to  use  median  I.Q.'s  as  well  as  median  scores. 
And  it  might  be  well  to  mention  here  that  when  the  scores 
of  subnormal  children  are  thrown  out  of  the  reckoning 
their  I.Q's  should  be  discarded  also;  otherwise  the  teach- 
er's rating  would  be  considerably  raised. 

Although,  of  course,  this  rating  does  not  include  every- 
thing that  should  be  taken  into  account  in  estimating  a 
teacher's  worth  to  the  school  and  to  the  community,  it 
nevertheless  covers  one  of  the  most  important  factors  to  be 
considered  and  furnishes  a  fairly  objective  test  by  means 
of  which  on  occasion  a  teacher  can  be  convinced  of  her 
own  inefficiency.  Certainly  if  a  teacher  fails  seriously  in 
this  phase  of  her  work,  she  cannot  profitably  be  kept  on 
the  pay-roll  for  the  sake  of  her  personal  appearance,  good 
moral  influence,  managing  abihty,  or  any  other  factor 
or  factors  that  go  to  make  up  a  good  teacher. 

Salary  and  Rating 
In  addition  to  a  substantial  general  raise  in  salaries 
throughout  the  district  for  the  current  year,  the  school 
boards  were  persuaded  to  grant  special  increases  of  one  or 
two  dollars  per  week  to  certain  teachers  who  rated  ninety- 
five  per  cent  or  better  with  ratings  calculated  as  described. 


MEASURING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS    8i 

None  of  the  teachers  who  failed  to  get  such  a  raise  made 
any  complaint  of  favoritism,  nor  could  they  consistently 
do  so,  since  they  had  themselves  accepted  the  basis  on 
which  their  ratings  were  determined.  Furthermore,  the 
teachers  are  working  this  year  with  the  understanding  that 
they  will  receive  bonuses  at  the  end  of  the  year  of  five 
dollars  for  every  whole  unit  that  they  increase  their  ratings 
over  those  of  last  year,  the  bonus  not  to  exceed  fifty  dol- 
lars. Thus,  if  a  teacher's  rating  last  June  was  89.2  and 
next  June  it  has  increased  to  94.4,  she  will  have  increased 
her  rating  five  whole  units.  Hence  she  will  receive  a  bonus 
of  twenty-five  dollars.  I  know  that  most  of  the  teachers 
are  working  hard  for  a  bonus. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

COMPARING  THE  EFFICIENCY  OF  SPECIAL 

TEACHING  METHODS  BY  MEANS 

OF  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

In  the  last  chapter  five  principal  factors  in  a  teacher's 
efficiency  were  distinguished  —  namely,  (i)  managing 
ability,  (2)  natural  aptitude,  (3)  method  of  teaching,  (4) 
interest  and  industry,  and  (5)  personality.  The  position 
was  taken  that  no  one  of  these  five  factors  can  be  accu- 
rately and  objectively  measured  independently  of  any  or 
all  of  the  other  factors. 

Although  fnethod  was  one  of  the  factors  mentioned,  we 
nevertheless  now  propose  to  measure  the  efficiency  of 
methods.  Note,  however,  that  we  do  not  propose  to  do  so 
independently  of  the  other  factors. 

The  Teacher  and  the  Method 

In  general  the  efficiency  of  a  teacher  and  the  efficiency  of 
her  methods  are  pretty  much  inseparable.  It  is  a  mooted 
question  whether  or  not  there  can  be  a  good  teacher  with- 
out good  teaching  methods.  We  hear  it  argued,  for 
example,  that  a  good  teacher  with  a  poor  method  will 
accomplish  more  than  a  poor  teacher  with  a  good  method. 
This  argument  implies  that  good  teachers  using  poor 
methods  may  secure  better  results  than  poor  teachers 
using  good  methods,  in  the  same  way  that  a  good  carpenter 
with  few  and  poor  tools  can  do  a  better  job  than  can  the 
novice  with  the  best  and  most  complete  set  of  tools  obtain- 
able. We  must  admit  that  there  is  much  truth  in  the 
argument.  Sometimes  we  find  that  a  teacher  who  is 
ignorant  of  approved  methods,  but  who  has  great  natural 


EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHING  METHODS      83 

ability,  is  obtaining  better  results  than  another  teacher 
who  is  without  natural  aptitude,  but  who,  perhaps  with  all 
the  advantages  of  professional  training,  is  using,  or  rather 
misusing,  the  most  approved  modern  methods.  One  has 
the  true  teaching  instinct  and  ability  to  apply  general 
principles  and  the  other  lacks  these  advantages. 

Whatever  may  be  the  actual  relations  between  good  and 
poor  teachers  and  good  and  poor  methods,  we  can  all  agree, 
I  think,  that  the  best  teachers  are  those  who  combine 
natural  aptitude  with  thorough  knowledge  of  up-to-date 
methods  together  with  skill  in  applying  them  so  as  to 
realize  their  possibilities.  And  although  we  cannot  meas- 
ure the  efficiency  of  a  teacher's  methods  entirely  apart 
from  consideration  of  her  general  ability,  there  is  a  way, 
nevertheless,  by  which  we  can,  with  the  help  of  standard- 
ized tests,  obtain  fairly  accurate  comparisons  of  the  effi- 
ciency of  various  special  methods,  taking  at  the  same  time 
full  cognizance  of  the  teacher's  general  ability. 

Eliminating  the  Variables 

This  can  be  done  somewhat  as  we  solve  simultaneous 
equations  in  algebra  —  that  is,  by  manipulating  the 
various  quantities  so  as  to  eliminate  all  but  one  of  the 
unknowns.  The  value  of  the  remaining  unknown  is 
readily  found  after  the  others  are  equalized  so  as  to  cancel 
each  other.  Yet  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  eliminated 
quantities  are  ignored.  The  manipulations  required  to 
bring  about  the  conditions  suitable  for  their  elimination 
give  them  their  full  force  in  evaluating  the  result. 

And  so,  if  we  are  to  find  the  relative  values  of  two  or 
more  special  teaching  methods,  we  must  equalize  as  far  as 
possible  the  conditions  under  which  those  methods  are 
tried  out,  thus  eliminating  all  the  unknown  quantities  but 
one.     The  chief  of  these  external  conditions  that  would 


84  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

affect  the  accuracy  of  our  results  are  the  general  ability  of 
the  teachers,  the  average  mental  abilities  of  the  several 
groups  of  pupils,  and  the  time  devoted  to  class  work  with 
the  method. 

Two  Ways  of  Comparing  Methods;  the  First  Case 
Illustrated 

Now  there  are  two  ways  in  which  we  may  want  to  compare 
methods.  We  may  want  to  discover  which  of  two  or  more 
special  methods  of  teaching  a  subject  will  give  the  best 
results  when  used  by  teachers  of  equal  general  ability,  or 
we  may  want  to  learn  which  of  two  or  more  special  meth- 
ods can  be  used  to  best  advantage  by  a  certain  teacher. 

To  illustrate  the  first  case,  suppose  we  wanted  to  com- 
pare the  results  of  drill  in  the  fundamental  operations  of 
arithmetic  as  conducted  in  the  usual  more  or  less  unor- 
ganized manner  and  without  much  regard  for  the  special 
difficulties  involved  in  definite  types  of  examples,  with 
results  of  drill  in  the  same  operations  by  means  of  the 
Courtis  Standard  Practice  Tests.  To  do  this  we  should 
first  choose  our  teachers  for  the  trial.  Their  general 
ability  should  be  as  nearly  equal  as  possible  in  order  to 
eliminate  so  far  as  may  be  any  inaccuracy  in  our  conclu- 
sions due  to  differences  in  ability.  Two  teachers  with 
approximately  equal  ratings  by  the  method  described  in 
the  last  chapter  would  serve  admirably.  One  should  have 
had  no  experience  with,  and  if  possible  no  knowledge  of, 
the  Courtis  Practice  Tests  or  of  similar  practice  material, 
while  the  other  should  have  had  experience  in  their  use 
and  knowledge  of  their  basic  principles.  It  would  not  do 
to  have  the  same  teacher  try  to  handle  both  methods 
because,  on  the  one  hand,  if  she  had  had  experience  with 
the  practice  tests,  the  defects  of  the  haphazard  procedure 
would  be  largely  nullified  by  her  knowledge  of  the  prin- 


1 


EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHING  METHODS      85 

ciplcs  underlying  them;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  she 
did  not  have  such  knowledge  and  experience,  the  advan- 
tages of  the  Courtis  method  would  in  some  measure  be  lost. 

The  next  step  is  to  choose  two  groups  of  pupils.  These 
groups  should  be  neither  too  large  nor  too  small;  neither 
large  enough  to  be  cumbersome  to  handle  as  a  class  nor 
small  enough  to  make  average  scores  meaningless.  From 
ten  or  twelve  to  twenty  in  a  group  is  probably  about  right. 
The  pupils  in  both  groups  should  be  in  the  same  grade 
and  the  average  mental  ages  and  average  intelligence 
quotients  of  the  two  groups  should  be  as  nearly  equal  as 
possible.  The  pupil's  mental  ages  and  intelligence  quo- 
tients are  obtained,  of  course,  by  means  of  intelligence 
tests,  some  uses  of  which  will  be  discussed  in  the  next 
chapter. 

As  soon  as  the  pupils  have  been  selected,  they  should  be 
carefully  tested  by  means  of  standardized  tests  in  the  fun- 
damentals, and  their  scores  should  be  recorded.  The 
testing  of  both  groups  and  the  scoring  of  the  papers  should 
be  done  by  the  same  person,  preferably  a  person  experi- 
enced in  such  work.  The  period  of  drill  should  begin  as 
soon  as  the  tests  have  been  given.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
see  that,  in  each  group,  exactly  the  same  amount  of  time 
is  devoted  to  drill  in  the  fundamental  operations  each  day. 
At  the  end  of  eight  or  ten  weeks  the  tests  should  be  given 
again,  the  scores  recorded,  and  the  progress  of  the  two 
groups  compared.  The  difference  in  progress  of  the  two 
groups  will  approximate  the  difference  in  efficiency  of  the 
two  methods. 

The  degree  of  accuracy  of  the  results  will  depend  upon 
the  care  with  which  the  tests  are  given  and  the  degree  to 
which  the  conditions  of  the  drill  work  are  equahzed.  It  is 
an  open  question  whether  or  not  the  teachers  themselves 
should  be  informed  of  the  main  purpose  in  view  —  that  is, 


86  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

the  purpose  of  comparing  the  efficiency  of  the  two  methods. 
If  we  could  be  perfectly  sure  that  both  teachers  would  be 
thoroughly  interested  and  honest  about  the  experiment, 
it  would  undoubtedly  be  wise  to  seek  their  intelligent 
cooperation,  since  by  so  doing  we  should  be  more  likely  to 
get  the  best  possible  results  from  both  methods.  But  if, 
thinking  that  their  reputations  are  at  stake,  one  or  both 
are  likely  to  be  tempted  to  stretch  the  time  limit  for 
daily  drill  or  to  persuade  the  pupils  to  drill  themselves 
for  speed  and  accuracy  outside  of  class,  then  it  will  proba- 
bly be  better  to  leave  them  in  blissful  ignorance  of  the 
main  plot,  merely  seeing  to  it  that  each  teacher  devotes 
the  same  amount  of  time  to  class  drill  in  the  fundamentals 
each  day.  In  this  way  one  can  infer  what  each  of  the 
methods  would  accomplish  under  everyday  working  con- 
ditions in  the  hands  of  equally  competent  teachers.  If 
one  is  particularly  desirous  of  getting  the  best  results  of 
which  either  method  is  capable,  this  purpose  may  perhaps 
be  accomplished  by  asking  each  teacher  separately  to  do 
her  very  best. 

An  Experiment  in  Comparing  Methods 

This  particular  problem  was  worked  out  in  my  district 
last  year  with  rather  interesting  and  fairly  conclusive 
results.  The  Courtis  Standard  Practice  Tests  were  not 
in  use  at  that  time  in  the  district,  but,  wishing  to  introduce 
them  the  following  September,  I  planned  ahead  to  have 
the  stage  set  for  their  appearance.  That  is,  before  the 
practice  tests  were  introduced  generally,  I  wanted  if 
possible  to  prove  definitely  that  better  results  could  be 
accomplished  by  their  use  with  less  drudgery  for  both' 
teachers  and  pupils. 

This  was  before  the  teachers'  ratings  had  been  computed 
as  described  in  chapter  vii.     I  did  not  therefore  have  this 


EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHING  METHODS      87 

sort  of  guidance  in  selecting  the  teachers  to  carry  out  the 
experiment;  but  I  did  have  the  records  of  progress  for 
each  school  as  shown  by  the  September  and  February  tests. 

Wishing  to  secure  as  representative  results  as  possible 
under  the  circumstances,  I  tried  the  experiment  in  each 
of  three  dififerent  towns.  To  handle  the  work  with  the 
practice  tests  one  teacher  in  each  town  was  selected  who 
had  shown  interest  and  capability  in  adapting  new  ideas 
to  classroom  use  and  whose  schools  had  made  normal 
progress  during  the  first  half  of  the  year.  Five  weeks 
before  the  end  of  the  winter  term  these  three  teachers  were 
furnished  with  the  Courtis  Standard  Practice  Tests, 
Teachers'  Manuals,  and  Students'  Practice  Pads.  I 
showed  them  how  to  use  the  tests,  pointed  out  their 
advantages,  and  explained  the  principles  underlying  them. 
Then  I  told  them  that  for  special  reasons  of  which  they 
would  be  informed  in  due  time,  I  was  anxious  to  have 
them  become  as  expert  as  possible  in  using  the  tests  by 
the  end  of  the  term.  They  assured  me  that  they  would 
do  their  best  and  I  believe  they  did.  At  any  rate,  they 
did  exceedingly  well. 

The  other  three  teachers,  one  in  each  of  the  same  towns, 
were  chosen  because  their  schools  had  also  shown  about 
normal  progress  for  the  first  half  of  the  year,  and  because 
of  the  further  fact  that  they  were  all  teachers  of  many 
years'  experience,  somewhat  set  in  their  ways  and  not 
taking  kindly  to  new  ideas,  but  withal  hard-working,  trust- 
worthy, and  capable  of  doing  very  good  work  in  their  own 
ways.  In  other  words,  they  were  good  old-fashioned 
teachers. 

The  intelligence  tests  had  been  given  by  this  time 
throughout  the  district,  and  I  hastened  to  record  all  the 
mental  ages  and  intelligence  quotients  for  use  in  selecting 
the  several  groups  of  pupils.     They  were  finally  chosen 


88  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

according  to  the  plan  outlined  above  except  that  the  grades 
in  any  one  school  were  too  small  to  permit  groups  of  ten 
pupils  to  be  selected  from  the  same  grade  in  such  a  way 
that  the  six  groups  would  all  average  the  same  in  both 
mental  ages  and  intelligence  quotients.  However,  the 
conditions  regarding  mental  ages  and  intelligence  quo- 
tients were  strictly  observed  and  allowed  for.  The  lowest 
mental  age  in  any  group  was  ten  years  nine  months  and 
the  highest  was  eleven  years  five  months.  The  I.Q's 
ranged  from  97  to  105. 

Using  the  Woody  Scales  for  measuring  the  ability  of 
pupils  in  the  fundamental  operations,  I  gave  the  first 
tests  to  the  six  picked  groups  during  the  first  week  of  the 
spring  term,  and  corrected  and  scored  them  myself, 
tabulating  the  average  scores  for  each  group  in  each 
subject  as  shown  in  Table  XII,  in  the  columns  marked  A. 
As  I  gave  the  tests  to  each  group  of  pupils,  I  had  a  talk 
with  their  teacher,  telling  her  that  for  very  important 
reasons  I  wanted  her  to  see  how  much  improvement  she 
could  bring  about  in  that  particular  group  during  the 
ensuing  twelve  weeks  by  drilling  the  pupils  together  just 
fifteen  minutes  each  day  for  speed  and  accuracy  in  the 
fundamental  operations  of  arithmetic.  The  three  teachers 
trained  for  the  purpose  were  directed  to  use  only  the  Cour- 
tis Standard  Practice  Tests  for  the  drill,  but  to  use  them 
for  all  they  were  worth.  None  of  the  teachers  had  any 
inkling  of  the  real  object  in  view.  Yet  each  one  was 
keyed  up  to  do  her  best  after  her  own  fashion.  Every 
pupil  in  the  six  groups  was  promised  a  special  holiday  for 
not  missing  more  than  one  day  during  the  term.  Peda- 
gogically,  of  course,  this  may  have  been  questionable, 
but  practically  it  proved  very  effective;  and  I  hoped 
that  the  end  would  justify  the  means.  At  any  rate,  I 
know  that  a  large  majority  of  the  pupils  got  their  holiday. 


EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHING  METHODS      89 


TABLE  XII.    AVERAGE  SCORES  IN  THE  WOODY  SCALES 
(a)     Groups  not  using  Practice  Tests 


Operation 

Group  I 

Group  2 

Group  3 

Averages 

^ 

B 

A 

B 

A 

B 

A 

B 

Addition   

II. 6 
8.2 
8.5 
5-5 

21.0 

14.8 
10.6 
12.2 
8.5 
25-9 

12.0 
8.4 
8.3 
5-9 

21.0 

14-7 
10.3 
12.0 
8.0 
26.1 

II. 8 

7-9 

8.1 

6.1 

22.2 

IO-5 

12.4 

8.8 

27.0 

II. 8 

8.2 

8.3 

5-8 

21.4 

14.8 

Subtraction    

10.5 

Multii)Iication 

Division 

12.2 
8  4 

Mixed  Fundamentals. . 

26.3 

(b)    Groups  using  Practice  Tests 

Operation 

Group  4 

Group  5 

Group  6 

Averages 

A 

B 

A 

B 

A 

B 

A 

B 

Addition 

II. 9 
8.1 
8.0 

5-4 
22.0 

16.0 
12.4 

15-3 

9.6 

29.0 

II. 7 
8.6 
9.0 

5-7 
19-5 

15-8 
12.  2 

15-5 
10.  2 
30.0 

II. 7 
8.0 

8.4 

5.8 

23.0 

16.3 
II. 9 
14.8 

9-3 
29.6 

II. 8 

8.2 
8.4 
5.6 

21-5 

16.0 

Subtraction 

12.  2 

Multiplication 

Division 

15-2 

9.7 

Mixed  Fundamentals. . 

29- S 

The  work  was  supervised  as  closely  as  possible  through- 
out the  term.  Neither  from  observation  nor  by  question- 
ing pupils  could  I  detect  any  evidence  that  the  rules  of  the 
game  were  being  disregarded  by  any  of  the  teachers.  At 
the  end  of  twelve  weeks  the  pupils  were  again  tested  by 
means  of  the  Woody  Scales.  The  average  scores  for  each 
group  were  placed  in  the  B  columns  of  Table  XII  in  such 
a  way  that  each  group's  second  score  in  each  subject  was 
opposite  its  first  score  in  the  same  subject.  According  to 
the  table,  the  average  score  of  the  pupils  of  group  i  on  the 
first  test  in  addition  (column  A)  was  11.6.  The  score  for 
the  same  group  in  the  second  addition  test  was  14.8  as 
shown  in  the  first  B  column.     The  scores  for  the  three 


90  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

groups  which  did  not  use  the  practice  tests  are  average 
for  both  first  and  second  tests  and  recorded  in  the  fourth^ 
and  B  columns,  while  in  like  manner  the  general  averages 
for  the  three  groups  which  used  the  practice  tests  are 
recorded  in  the  last  two  columns  of  the  table. 

It  will  be  noted  that,  according  to  the  A  columns  of  the 
general  averages,  the  two  main  groups,  the  first  consisting 
of  the  three  smaller  groups  in  which  the  practice  tests  were 
not  used,  and  the  second,  of  the  three  groups  in  which  they 
were  used,  started  almost  exactly  even  in  the  race  as  might 
be  expected  under  the  circumstances.  The  first  score  of 
both  groups  in  addition  was  11.8  and  the  first  score  in 
subtraction  for  each  group  was  8.2.  The  remaining  first 
scores  difi'ered  by  but  one  or  two  tenths  of  a  unit.  But 
this  correspondence  is  no  longer  apparent  when  the  B 
columns  of  general  averages  are  considered.  The  final 
scores  of  the  group  using  the  practice  tests  are  seen  to  be 
considerably  larger  than  those  of  the  group  not  using  them. 
The  differences  between  the  scores  contained  in  the  fourth 
and  last  B  columns  represent  the  difference  in  progress 
of  the  two  main  groups. 

The  group  of  pupils  drilled  with  the  practice  tests  has 
all  the  best  of  the  argument,  the  difference  in  progress 
being  sufficiently  great  to  prove  conclusively  considerable 
superiority  for  the  Courtis  method  properly  handled. 
On  the  whole,  the  improvement  of  all  the  groups  was  sur- 
prisingly large  for  a  period  of  only  twelve  weeks.  It 
amounted  on  the  average  to  about  a  year  of  progress  for 
the  groups  which  did  not  use  the  practice  tests  and  to 
about  a  year  and  three  quarters  for  the  group  using  the 
practice  tests.  This  merely  goes  to  show  what  can  be 
accomplished  by  intensive  work  along  definite  lines  when 
the  interests  of  teachers  and  pupils  have  been  thoroughly 
aroused. 


EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHING  METHODS      91 

The  Second  Case:  Comparing  Methods  when  Used 
BY  THE  Same  Teacher 

Now  to  return  to  the  second  way  in  which  we  might  want 
to  compare  special  methods.  Suppose  we  wish  to  learn 
which  of  two  or  three  special  methods  will  give  the  best 
results  with  a  particular  teacher.  This  is  quite  a  different 
matter  from  measuring  the  relative  efficiency  of  the 
methods  themselves.  Only  in  exceptional  cases  can 
methods  be  accurately  compared  when  handled  by  the 
same  teacher.  For  such  a  purpose  the  teacher  must  be 
equally  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  methods  to  be  compared 
and  without  prejudice  in  favor  of  any  particular  method. 
In  particular  she  must  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
special  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  method  and 
know  how  to  minimize  the  latter  and  make  the  most  of 
the  former.  In  no  other  way  could  the  methods  be  given 
a  fair  trial.  Only  an  exceptionally  well-trained  and  widely 
experienced  teacher,  with  the  impartial  mind  of  a  scien- 
tist seeking  truth  through  experiment,  could  fulfill  these 
conditions.  Such  teachers  are  not  to  be  found  in  every 
school  system. 

We  know  that  quite  often  a  method  of  teaching  which 
has  proved  highly  successful,  when  handled  by  its  origina- 
tor or  by  teachers  specially  trained  by  him,  has  failed 
miserably  when  introduced  into  a  school  system  where 
the  teachers  were  trained  and  experienced  in  other 
methods.  And  such  failure  is  not  to  be  wondered  at. 
When  the  mere  form  of  a  new  method,  without  its  spirit, 
is  introduced  among  workers  lacking  a  knowledge  of  the 
proper  technique  to  accompany  the  method,  and  natu- 
rally prejudiced  in  favor  of  their  own  methods,  the  new 
method  is  foredoomed  to  failure.  A  few  of  the  better 
teachers,  specially  endowed  with  adaptability  and  initia- 


92  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

tive,  may  grasp  the  essential  advantages  of  the  new 
method,  gradually  evolve  a  suitable  technique  to  fit  it,  and 
adopt  it  as  their  own.  But  most  teachers,  finding  them- 
selves accomplishing  less  with  the  new  method  than  they 
did  with  the  old,  and  longing  for  the  familiar  routine,  will, 
unless  constant  supervision  prevents,  return  surrepti- 
tiously at  least  to  their  former  procedure,  convinced  that 
there  is  none  better  and  that  attempting  new  methods  is  a 
waste  of  time  and  trying  to  the  nerves. 

Of  course,  if  the  real  interest  of  the  teachers  can  be 
aroused  in  the  new  method  by  a  judicious  advertising  cam- 
paign before  it  is  introduced,  and  if  everybody's  patience 
holds  out  long  enough,  and  a  definite  policy  of  teacher 
selecting  and  teacher  training  is  carried  on,  eventually 
the  new  method  will  come  into  its  own  if  it  really  pos- 
sesses marked  advantages.  But  in  too  many  instances 
the  innovation  is  discarded  as  worthless  after  a  few 
months  of  half-hearted  trial  without  any  adequate  attempt 
to  modify  the  environment  to  fit  the  new  method.  And 
the  chief  factors  contributing  to  such  failures  in  attempt- 
ing to  introduce  into  a  school  system  new  methods  of 
teaching  are  the  indifference  of  teachers  or  their  actual 
antagonism  toward  new  methods  in  general,  their  lack  of 
knowledge  concerning  particular  new  methods,  and  their 
lack  of  foresight  and  initiative  in  adapting  themselves 
and  their  ideas  to  changing  conditions.  Probably  the 
most  annoying  factor  and  the  one  most  difiicult  to  elimi- 
nate is  the  teacher's  mental  attitude  toward  new  ways 
of  doing  things,  her  clinging  to  familiar  trails,  and  her 
aversion  to  breaking  new  paths  even  in  the  interest  of 
finding  a  smoother,  shorter,  and  pleasanter  road  to  her 
goal. 

Hence  new  methods,  unless  real  interest  and  belief  in 
them  has  been  aroused  in  the  teacher  beforehand,  have  to 


EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHING  METHODS      93 

contend  against  ignorance  and  indifference  or  prejudice 
from  the  start.  I  repeat,  therefore,  that  the  efficiency  of 
new  methods  cannot  be  accurately  compared  with  that 
of  old  methods  if  the  new  ones  are  tested  by  the  very 
teacher  whose  own  methods  are  being  questioned  as  to 
their  comparative  worth.  Her  attitude  is  too  much  like 
that  of  the  hen  defending  her  chickens  from  the  hawk  that 
would  destroy  them,  the  teacher's  chickens  being  her  own 
familiar  methods  while  the  hawk  is  the  superintendent 
with  his  disturbing  new  ideas. 

We  can,  however,  determine  pretty  accurately  which  of 
two  methods  a  teacher  can  (or  will)  handle  most  efficiently 
regardless  of  the  actual  possibilities  inherent  in  the  two 
methods.  And  since  it  is  essential  that  each  teacher  use, 
in  general,  the  methods  with  which  she  can  produce  the 
best  results,  it  is  also  essential  that  we  know  what  those 
methods  are.  It  will  not  be  found  profitable,  merely  for 
the  sake  of  having  certain  new  methods,  to  enforce  their 
continued  use  on  teachers  who  cannot  or  will  not  produce 
as  good  results  with  them  as  they  produce  with  their  own 
methods.  So  we  must  have  some  way  of  determining 
whether  or  not  teachers  are  doing  as  well  or  better  with 
the  new  methods  after  using  them  a  reasonable  length  of 
time,  say  six  months  or  a  year. 

A  Suggested  Plan  of  Procedure 

This  can  be  done  with  the  help  of  standardized  tests. 
First  select  ten  or  a  dozen  pupils  in  the  school  with  mental 
ages  and  intelligence  quotients  as  nearly  equal  as  it  is 
possible  to  arrange.  Divide  them  into  two  equal  groups 
that  average  about  the  same  in  mental  ability.  Next 
test  them  with  some  standardized  tests  in  the  subject  for 
which  special  methods  are  to  be  compared.  Then  have 
the  teacher  try  out  two  methods,  one  on  each  group  of 


94  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

pupils,  over  a  period  of  three  or  four  months.  At  the  end 
of  that  time  give  the  tests  again  and  compare  the  progress 
of  the  two  groups. 

Such  a  trial  will  not  prove  necessarily  which  method  is 
the  best  as  regards  possibilities,  nor  with  which  method  the 
teacher  could  do  the  best  if  she  had  the  proper  inclination 
and  training,  but  it  will  prove  which  method  she  will  do 
the  best  with  under  existing  conditions.  And  that  is  the 
essential  point.  If,  after  preparing  carefully  for  the 
introduction  of  a  new  method  of  teaching  some  subject, 
by  discussing  its  possibilities  with  teachers  individually 
and  collectively,  and  by  furnishing  them  with  suitable 
reading  material  concerning  its  basic  principles,  special 
advantages,  and  technique;  if  after  demonstrating  to  the 
teachers  the  proper  handling  of  the  method  and  giving 
them  a  reasonable  length  of  time  to  acquire  skill  in  its 
use;  and  if  after  striving  in  every  way  to  arouse  their 
interest  and  hearty  cooperation  in  giving  the  new  method  a 
thorough  try-out;  if,  after  doing  all  these  things  and  as 
many  more  as  you  can  think  of,  you  make  such  a  com- 
parison as  outlined  above  and  find  that  a  teacher  either 
cannot  or  will  not  do  at  least  as  good  work  with  the  new 
method  as  she  did  with  the  old,  then  it  is  time  to  discard 
either  the  teacher  or  the  method.  If  your  best  teachers 
have  succeeded  in  getting  superior  results  by  using  the 
new  method,  it  means  that  the  method  is  all  right  and  it 
may  be  wise  to  keep  the  method  and  get  a  new  teacher. 
But  if  your  best  teachers  have  failed  to  get  better  results 
with  the  new  method  after  several  months  of  earnest  ef- 
fort, it  will  be  better  to  discard  the  method. 

Need  of  Testing  Methods  by  Results 

At  any  rate,  in  order  that  the  children  may  get  the  most 
for  their  time  and  the  taxpayers  the  most  for  their  money, 


EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHING  METHODS      95 

it  behooves  us  to  make  sure  that  the  methods  in  use  in  the 
schools  under  our  direction  are  the  most  efficient  that  can 
be  used  under  existing  circumstances.  We  can  do  this 
either  by  selecting  and  training  teachers  to  fit  our  chosen 
methods  or  by  selecting  methods  to  fit  the  available 
teachers.  Most  emphatically  it  is  not  efficiency  to  cling 
to  new  methods  forced  upon  untrained  or  improperly 
trained  and  often  unwilling  teachers  just  because  they  are 
up-to-date  methods,  when  those  teachers  are  not  doing 
as  good  work  with  them  as  with  their  own  methods. 
Unless  we  can  train  our  teachers  successfully  in  the  proper 
use  of  the  new  methods,  or  obtain  teachers  already  trained 
in  their  use,  we  had  better  stick  to  the  old  a  little  longer. 
Standardized  tests  will  help  to  prove  whether  or  not  the 
new  methods  are  more  successful  than  the  old  methods 
in  a  particular  environment.  Results  are  more  important 
than  methods. 


CHAPTER  IX 
SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS 

Practical  Notes  for  Practical  Purposes 

Another  promising  offspring  of  modern  psychological 
science  is  the  standardized  intelligence  test.  In  the  hands 
of  practical  men  intelligence  tests  are  proving  themselves 
to  be  practical  tools  for  practical  purposes.  During  the 
war  they  were  used  to  obtain  leaders  of  men  for  the  army; 
large  industrial  concerns  are  using  them  to  pick  young  men 
and  women  to  be  trained  for  executive  positions;  great 
universities  are  using  them  in  lieu  of  entrance  examina- 
tions to  select  students;  social  welfare  organizations  are 
using  them  to  discover  feeble-minded  individuals  who 
menace  society  as  potential  or  actual  criminals;  live  teach- 
ers and  educational  administrators  are  using  them  for 
various  purposes.  We  have  heard  much  of  them  during 
the  last  three  or  four  years.  Are  we  all  getting  our  share 
of  the  help  they  offer  us? 

I  do  not  propose  to  enter  into  a  comprehensive  discus- 
sion of  the  nature  of  intelligence  tests,  the  need  for  them, 
their  reliability,  or  the  uses  to  which  they  might  be  put. 
All  this  has  been  set  forth  at  length  and  in  a  clear  and 
readable  manner  by  Lewis  M.  Terman  to  whose  book, 
The  Measurement  of  Intelligence,  published  by  Houghton 
Mifilin  Company,  I  refer  all  readers  desirous  of  a  full  dis- 
cussion of  intelligence  testing  in  general  and  of  the  Binet- 
Simon  Intelligence  Scale  in  particular.  My  own  purpose 
is  merely  to  describe  how  we  have  put  intelligence  tests 
to  practical  uses  in  our  schools. 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS      97 

Intelligence  Tests  Needed  in  School:  Faulty 
Judgments  of  Teachers 

I  shall,  however,  refer  for  a  moment  to  the  need  for  soms 
method  of  measuring  objectively  the  relative  mental 
abilities  of  pupils  in  the  schools.  This  need  is  not  gener- 
ally felt  even  among  teachers  and  school  men.  Some  of 
the  teachers  whom  I  convinced  with  comparatively  little 
difficulty  of  the  need  for  standardized  tests  for  measuring 
the  progress  of  pupils  in  their  studies  were  incHned  to 
scof!  at  the  idea  of  intelligence  tests.  Their  attitude  may 
be  expressed  in  the  words  of  one  teacher  of  many  years' 
experience  who  said  with  a  decided  air  of  assurance, 
"  I  guess  I  can  tell  the  bright  children  from  the  dull  ones 
without  the  help  of  any  intelligence  tests."  Just  before 
giving  the  intelligence  tests  in  the  school  of  this  particular 
teacher,  I  asked  her  to  write  down  for  me  the  name  of  the 
brightest  pupil  in  each  grade  according  to  her  best  judg- 
ment. 

As  might  be  expected,  and  as  events  proved,  her  esti- 
mates were  right  or  nearly  right  in  some  cases  and  entirely 
wrong  in  others.  As  an  example  of  being  wrong,  she 
selected  as  the  brightest  pupil  in  grade  four,  a  twelve-year- 
old  girl  of  small  stature  who  led  her  class  in  achievement. 
Now  it  must  be  perfectly  obvious  to  any  one  who  con- 
siders the  matter  seriously  that  it  would  be  a  very  unusual 
thing  to  find  a  mentally  superior  child  of  twelve  years  in 
the  fourth  grade.  The  teacher,  however,  had  neglected 
the  age  factor  in  making  her  estimate  of  this  child's  mental 
abiHty  and  had  rated  her  as  a  very  bright  child  simply 
because  she  was  doing  the  best  work  of  any  pupil  in  her 
class.  The  fact  that  the  child  was  small  for  her  age  and 
so  did  not  tower  above  her  classmates  of  nine  and  ten 
probably  helped  out  the  delusion.     If  this  girl  had  been 


98  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

placed  in  a  class  of  normal  twelve-year-olds,  she  would 
have  been  recognized  at  once  as  a  dull  pupil  —  a  fact 
which  the  mental  tests  at  once  disclosed.  She  had  a 
mental  age  of  ten  years  two  months  and  an  intelUgence 
quotient  of  80. 

In  reality  the  brightest  child  in  the  fourth  grade  proved 
to  be  a  little  girl  of  eight  years  six  months  whom  the 
teacher  estimated  as  "  just  average."  This  girl  had  a 
mental  age  of  ten  years  and  an  inteUigence  quotient  of  118. 
Among  pupils  of  her  own  age  she  would  have  been  a  shin- 
ing star.  The  teacher's  errors  of  judgment  were  due  to 
the  fact  that  because  of  their  ages  the  first  girl  was  work- 
ing a  httle  below  capacity  and  the  second  a  little  above 
capacity.  Teachers  and  others  are  too  prone  to  estimate  a 
child's  mental  ability  by  comparing  the  amount  and  qual- 
ity of  his  work  with  those  of  the  other  children  in  his  grade 
regardless  of  how  much  he  may  be  advanced  or  retarded. 
If  the  child  happens  to  be  in  the  normal  grade  for  his 
age,  this  judgment  may  be  fairly  accurate;  otherwise  it 
is  prone  to  be  inaccurate.  Personal  judgment  in  such 
matters  must  be  replaced  as  far  as  possible  by  objective 
measurement. 

The  Fallacy  that  All  Pupils  can  make  Satisfactory 
Progress 

Furthermore,  intelligence  tests  are  needed  to  help  refute 
a  common  fallacy  which  is  almost  unbelievably  widespread 
in  the  educational  world  as  well  as  outside  it  —  the  fallacy 
that  under  proper  conditions  and  with  proper  instruction 
every  child,  barring  the  obviously  feeble-minded,  is  about 
equally  capable  of  making  satisfactory  progress  in  any 
study.  This  idea  is  echoed  in  our  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, which  offers  as  a  self-evident  truth  that  "  All 
men  are  created  equal."  It  is  reechoed  in  the  rabid  mouth- 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS      99 

ings  of  I.W.W.'s  proclaiming  the  equality  of  men.  It  is 
the  precept  and  guide  of  the  teacher  who  wastes  her  time 
and  the  time  of  the  brighter  children  of  a  class  while 
she  holds  them  back  and  tries  desperately  to  help  one 
or  two  mentally  deficient  classmates  to  keep  up  with  the 
rest. 

Only  a  short  time  ago  the  principal  of  one  of  the  oldest 
and  most  famous  academies  in  New  England  spent  nearly 
an  hour  assuring  me  most  vehemently  that  there  was 
absolutely  no  reason  in  the  world  why,  with  proper  instruc- 
tion and  sufficient  interested  effort,  one  student  could  not 
do  just  as  well  as  another  in  Latin,  history,  algebra,  or 
chemistry  —  and  this  in  face  of  the  fact  that  he  admitted 
he  had  never  been  able  to  achieve  such  ideally  uniform 
results  in  any  of  his  classes.  I  gathered  from  his  talk, 
however,  that  the  failure  was  not  due  in  any  measure  to 
inadequate  instruction,  but  entirely  to  widely  varying 
degrees  of  interest,  industry,  and  application  on  the  part 
of  his  pupils.  He  was  cock-sure  and  eloquent.  I  was  so 
amazed  at  his  attitude  and  so  overwhelmed  by  a  torrent 
of  time-worn,  dogmatic,  and,  to  him,  unassailable  argu- 
ments upholding  his  contention,  that  I  could  offer  but  a 
feeble  reply.  I  am  convinced  that  he  went  away  with 
the  firm  behef  that  I  was  some  new  variety  of  incurable 
crank. 

Now  any  one  with  common  sense  who  will  forget 
proverbs  and  doubtful  platitudes  long  enough  to  give  his 
common  sense  time  to  function,  can  readily  see  that  men 
are  not  born  equal.  Perhaps  they  should  be,  but  they  are 
not.  They  are  not  born  equal  mentally,  physically,  or 
financially,  nor  even  with  that  democratic  equality  of 
opportunity  of  which  we  hear  so  much.  We  have  all  ex- 
tremes mentally  from  the  driveling  idiot  to  the  genius, 
physically  from  the  bedridden  cripple  to  the  physically 


loo  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

perfect  human  being,  and  financially  from  the  pauper  to 
the  millionaire.  Financial  inequality  may  be  more  or  less 
overcome,  and  in  many  cases  so  also  may  physical  in- 
equahty.  But  mental  inequality,  according  to  the  psy- 
chologists, seems  to  be  pretty  much  a  fixed  condition. 
They,  with  their  brother  scientists  in  the  realm  of  ge- 
netics, seem  to  have  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
majority  of  their  fellows  that  an  individual's  mental 
capacities  are  determined  from  the  moment  of  his  con- 
ception, and  that  the  limitations  of  his  mental  develop- 
ment are  predetermined  by  the  forces  of  heredity.  This 
means  for  us,  among  other  things,  that  as  soon  as  a  school 
child  has  reached  his  limitations,  if  not  before,  he  will 
begin  to  fall  behind  his  classmates  who  have  inherited 
better  mental  equipment,  and  that  no  amount  of  extra 
coaching  on  our  part  or  effort  on  his  part  will  enable 
him  to  keep  up  for  long  unless  the  rest  of  the  class  is 
held  down  to  his  pace.  If,  therefore,  efficiency  means 
partly  the  ehmination  of  wasted  effort,  should  we  not,  in 
the  name  of  efficiency,  eliminate  the  waste  of  time  and 
energy  expended  in  the  hopeless  task  of  trying  to  fit  all 
children  to  the  same  mould? 

The  Binet-Simon  Intelligence  Scale 

Only  for  the  past  few  years,  in  fact,  only  since  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Binet-Simon  Intelligence  Scale  (in  some  of  its 
later  and  better  editions),  have  we  really  a  practical  and 
fairly  accurate  tool  for  the  measurement  of  intelligence, 
one  which  can  be  used  effectively  by  interested  persons  of 
ordinary  inteUigence  with  little  experience  in  psychological 
testing.  This  scale,  because  of  the  many  years  of  careful 
investigation  and  experiment  by  its  originator,  the  several 
painstaking  revisions,  and  its  careful  standardization 
both  as  to  content  and  method  of  procedure,  is  undcubt- 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS     loi 

cdly  the  most  accurate  intelligence  test  available.  The 
fact,  however,  that  each  individual  must  be  interviewed 
separately  makes  it  unsuitable  for  general  use  in  testing 
large  numbers  of  pupils,  as,  for  example,  in  making  an 
educational  survey.  For  a  few  examiners  to  test  thou- 
sands of  children  in  a  large  school  system,  or  for  one 
examiner  to  test  several  hundred  children  in  a  small  school 
system,  with  the  Binet-Simon  Scale  would  take  more  time 
than  is  usually  available  for  such  purposes.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  if  the  testing  must  be  done  by  the  superin- 
tendent or  his  assistants  along  with  their  numerous  other 
duties. 

Group  Tests  of  Intelligence 

When  we  entered  the  war  against  Germany  our  military 
authorities  were  faced  with  the  problem  of  selecting  and 
training  thousands  of  new  officers  to  lead  the  millions  of 
raw  recruits  furnished  by  the  draft.  Time  was  at  a 
premium.  The  psychologists  offered  their  assistance,  and 
after  a  period  of  trial  it  was  decided  to  permit  them  to 
select  the  new  officer  material  by  giving  intelligence  tests 
to  the  more  promising  of  the  drafted  and  enhsted  men. 
The  above-mentioned  limitation  to  the  practical  use  of  the 
Binet-Simon  Test  was  quickly  realized  and  led  to  the  rapid 
devising  and  standardizing  of  group  intelligence  tests  by 
means  of  which  hundreds  of  individuals  could  be  tested  at 
one  time.  These  tests  were  to  some  extent  based  on  the 
Binet-Simon  Test  and  to  a  greater  extent  on  the  special 
mental  tests  which  had  hitherto  been  used  in  psychological 
laboratories  (directions,  analogies,  opposites,  etc.).  The 
new  instruments,  however,  were  adapted  in  organization 
and  method  of  procedure  to  group  presentation,  definite 
response,  and  objective  scoring.  By  the  end  of  the  war 
such  tests  had  reached  a  high  degree  of  development. 


102  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

The  industrial  and  social  world,  awakening  to  the  possi- 
bilities of  mental  measurement,  soon  adopted  the  army 
tests  for  their  own  purposes,  as  they  could  well  do,  since 
they  were  dealing  mainly  with  adults.  But  radical 
changes  were  required  to  fit  them  for  use  in  testing  the 
mental  abilities  of  elementary-school  children.  Devising 
suitable  group  tests  for  the  younger  children  who  cannot 
read  or  write  much  was  the  most  difficult  problem.  This 
problem  has  been  partially  solved  within  the  last  three 
years  by  means  of  picture  completion  tests.  There  are 
now  available  a  number  of  excellent  group  tests  adapted 
to  school  use.  In  this  district  we  have  used  the  Otis 
Group  Intelligence  Test  for  the  upper  grades,  the  Dear- 
born test  for  the  lower  grades,  and  the  Haggerty  tests  for 
all  the  grades. 

Our  Original  Purpose  to  Locate  the  Mentally 
Defective 

Although  we  have  derived  several  worth-while  advan- 
tages from  the  use  of  standardized  intelHgence  tests  in  the 
schools,  the  original  purpose  in  giving  them  was  to  dis- 
cover all  the  mentally  incompetent  children  in  the  schools 
of  the  district.  The  scheme  for  measuring  the  ability  of 
teachers  by  the  progress  of  their  pupils,  as  described  in  a 
previous  chapter  (such  progress  to  be  measured  by  stand- 
ardized achievement  tests),  demanded  some  way  of  know- 
ing which  pupils  were  mentally  capable  of  making  some- 
where near  normal  progress  and  which  ones  were  incapable 
of  doing  so.  It  is  manifestly  unfair  to  expect  teachers  to 
secure  normal  progress  with  feeble-minded  or  very  dull 
pupils.  Accordingly,  the  work  of  determining  the  mental 
ages  and  intelligence  quotients  of  all  the  children  in  the 
district  was  undertaken  soon  after  they  had  been  graded 
in  October. 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS     103 

The  Otis  Test 

At  that  time,  as  far  as  I  knew  at  least,  the  most  suitable 
standardized  group  intelligence  test  on  the  market  was 
the  Otis  test.^  It  contains  excellent  testing  material 
organized  and  arranged  so  as  to  be  easily  and  objectively 
scored.  It  is  supposed  to  be  used  as  low  as  the  third 
grade,  but  on  checking  up  the  results  with  those  from  the 
Binet-Simon  scale  I  found  that,  although  the  correlation 
was  fairly  high  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  it  grew 
rapidly  less  in  going  down  the  grades  until  in  the  third 
grade  it  was  too  small  to  bespeak  much  accuracy  for  the 
Otis  test.  This  is  assuming,  of  course,  that  the  Binet- 
Simon  scale  is  the  standard  in  accuracy.  Just  as  a  guess, 
I  might  venture  the  opinion  that  the  Otis  test  makes 
too  great  demands  on  concentration  and  acquired  reading 
abihty  to  give  accurate  results  below  the  sixth  grade  ex- 
cept with  the  brightest  children. 

This  failure  of  the  Otis  test  to  give  accurate  results  in 
the  lower  grades  was  somewhat  discouraging.  I  had 
planned  to  use  it  with  all  pupils  above  the  second  grade 
and  then  gradually,  as  I  could  find  time,  to  test  out  the 
first  two  grades  with  the  Binet-Simon  scale.  It  now  ap- 
peared that  I  should  have  to  begin  with  the  individual 
tests  in  the  fifth  grade  and  work  down.  In  the  interests 
of  uniformity  and  accuracy  I  planned  to  do  all  the  mental 
testing  myself,  and  even  with  group  tests  this  would  be  a 
considerable  task  in  a  district  where  the  schools  were  so 
scattered. 

The  Haggerty  Tests 

Nevertheless,  I  tackled  the  job  and  by  the  end  of  the 
fall  term  had  tested  more  than  seventy  pupils  with  the 

'  This  was  the  first  of  the  tests  which  Dr.  Otis  brought  out. 


104  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Binet-Simon  scale.  During  the  first  month  of  the  winter 
term  other  matters  kept  me  busy.  Then  came  the  giving 
of  the  midyear  achievement  tests  and  the  attendant  work 
of  tabulating  results.  I  had  just  got  around  to  taking  up 
tlie  mental  testing  once  more,  when  the  Haggerty  tests 
made  their  appearance.  I  ordered  some  to  try  out. 
They  were  first  given  in  the  four  lower  grades  to  the  same 
children  to  whom  the  individual  tests  had  already  been 
given.  I  was  delighted  to  find  a  fairly  close  agreement 
between  the  Haggerty  and  Binet-Simon  results  even  in 
the  first  and  second  grades.  Then  I  began  all  over  again, 
giving  the  Haggerty  tests  right  through  the  district  in  all 
the  grades.  The  giving  of  the  tests  took  about  a  week  and 
by  the  end  of  three  weeks  they  were  all  corrected  and  the 
results  recorded.  Each  pupil's  mental  age  and  intelli- 
gence quotient  were  recorded  on  his  or  her  graph  card 
where  they  have  often  proved  very  enlightening  when 
studied  in  connection  with  the  pupil's  achievement  record 
on  the  same  card. 

A  Case  in  which  Intelligence  Testlng  Helped 

For  instance,  I  have  before  me  as  I  write  the  card  of  a 
thirteen-year-old  boy  with  an  intelhgence  quotient  of  io8. 
Although  his  mental  age  at  the  time  of  the  test  was 
thirteen  years  eleven  months,  he  was  only  in  the  sixth 
grade,  and  his  achievement  record  showed  that  even  in 
that  grade  he  was  doing  poor  work.  Now,  why  should  a 
child  of  his  age  and  intelligence  be  doing  poor  work  in  the 
sixth  grade?  Any  one  or  more  of  various  conditions  might 
account  for  it,  such  as  poor  teaching,  poor  general  health, 
adenoids,  enlarged  tonsils,  defective  sense  organs,  un- 
favorable living  conditions  at  home,  constant  fatigue  from 
outside  work,  and  so  on.  But  if  we  are  to  handle  such 
cases  with  understanding  and  sympathy,  we  must  know 
definitely  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS     105 

In  this  boy's  case  a  combination  of  untoward  circum- 
stances was  found.  To  begin  with,  he  was  much  over- 
worked outside  of  school  hours,  often  at  tasks  beyond  his 
strength.  Moreover,  his  parents  were  constantly  quarrel- 
ing and  snarling  at  each  other,  making  home  life  a  misery 
to  the  sensitive  boy.  A  medical  examination  showed  him 
to  be  in  good  general  health,  but  revealed  the  fact  that  he 
was  a  little  deaf  —  a  fact  never  before  suspected  even  by 
his  parents.  In  connection  with  this  fact  it  is  significant 
that  his  teacher  was  accustomed  to  speak  in  rather  sub- 
dued tones,  so  that  he  lost  a  large  part  of  the  oral  instruc- 
tion. To  sum  up,  the  boy  was  hard  of  hearing,  sensitive, 
tired,  and  discouraged. 

Having  discovered  these  conditions,  we  moved  to 
remedy  them  as  far  as  possible.  Seating  the  boy  where  he 
could  watch  the  teacher's  lips  at  all  times  when  she  was 
talking  to  the  class  enabled  him  to  get  much  instruction 
which  under  former  conditions  would  have  been  lost  to 
him.  A  tactful  show  of  sympathy  and  understanding  on 
the  teacher's  part,  and  words  of  encouragement  instead  of 
constant  nagging  for  failure  to  do  the  class  work,  brought 
a  new  light  to  his  eyes  and  the  sullen  look  of  a  misunder- 
stood boy  left  his  face.  His  whole  attitude  toward  the 
school  and  its  work  changed.  A  talk  with  his  father,  who 
did  not  mean  to  be  either  unreasonable  or  unkind,  helped 
to  lighten  his  burden  of  work  at  home.  A  talk  with  both 
parents  concerning  the  efTects  of  their  constant  bickering 
on  their  boy's  life  served  to  make  home  life  more  pleasant. 
They  were  really  a  devoted  couple,  and  their  quarreling 
seemed  to  be  more  from  habit  and  because  they  enjoyed 
it  than  because  of  real  ill-feeling.  This  pupil  is  undoubt- 
edly a  mvtch  happier  boy,  interested  in  his  school  work 
and  gradually  catching  up  with  the  other  children  of  his 
age  and  ability  in  the  school.  He  is  no  longer  considered 
dull. 


io6  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Such  investigations  and  readjustments  are  decidedly 
worth  while.  But  before  they  can  take  place  our  atten- 
tion must  be  attracted  to  the  need  for  investigation.  And 
here  the  worth  of  standardized  tests,  intelligently  used,  is 
again  demonstrated.  In  this  boy's  case  it  is  interesting 
to  conjecture  whether  the  need  for  investigation  would 
ever  have  become  apparent,  if  the  results  of  his  mental  and 
achievement  tests  had  not  been  recorded  on  the  same  card 
and  carefully  studied  together  by  some  one  interested  in 
interpreting  them  for  the  best  good  of  all  concerned. 

This  was  a  particularly  interesting  case,  and  for  this 
reason  it  was  chosen  to  illustrate  my  point.  But  it  is  not 
the  only  case  where  comparison  of  mental-test  records 
with  achievement- test  records  has  led  to  investigations 
resulting  in  permanent  good.  And  there  is  need  of  investi- 
gation whenever  a  child  grades  high  in  mental  ability  and 
low  in  actual  achievement  of  school  work.  For  it  is  very 
unusual  to  find  a  pupil,  physically  and  mentally  normal, 
in  good  health,  and  with  good  home  influences,  who  is 
doing  unsatisfactory  work  in  school.  If  such  is  appar- 
ently the  case,  there  is  generally  something  wrong  some- 
where; and  it  is  usually  possible  to  make  a  beneficial 
readjustment. 

Another  Case  —  A  Menace 

Another  card  represents  a  type  of  pupil  constituting  one 
of  the  serious  school  and  social  problems.  It  is  the  record 
of  a  boy  of  fifteen  years  six  months.  His  mental  age  is 
nine  years  two  months,  and  his  intelligence  quotient  59. 
This  boy's  graph  shows  that  he  cannot  do  satisfactory 
work  in  the  third  grade,  although  he  has  been  in  that  grade 
for  four  years.  Investigation  revealed  his  immediate 
ancestry  to  be  of  universally  low  mental  and  moral 
caliber.    This  boy  is  a  menace  to  the  school  and  the  school 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS    107 

is  a  menace  to  him.  He  is  a  menace  to  the  school  because, 
with  all  the  dawning  strength,  instincts,  passions,  and 
emotions  of  the  primitive  male  controlled  only  by  the 
undeveloped  mind  of  a  nine-year-old,  he  is  no  fit  associate 
for  normal  boys  and  girls.  The  school  is  a  menace  to  him 
because,  instead  of  furnishing  him  with  interesting  and 
valuable  employment  suited  to  his  abilities,  it  is  wasting 
time  that  he  could  more  profitably  and  instructively 
employ  elsewhere  and  because  it  is  forcing  upon  him  habits 
of  idleness  and  failure. 

Unless  special  classes  are  available,  the  public  school  is 
no  place  for  children  with  intelligence  quotients  much 
below  70,  especially  when  they  have  become  two  or  more 
years  retarded  in  their  school  work.  No  further  evidence 
is  needed  that  they  have  reached  the  limit  of  their  mental 
development  along  the  lines  of  the  ordinary  program  of 
studies.  Whenever  possible  they  should  be  transferred  to 
special  institutions  where  they  can  have  special  training 
suited  to  their  needs  and  capacities;  and  measures  should 
be  taken  to  prevent  them  from  reproducing  their  kind. 
At  any  rate,  the  public  schools  should  be  rid  of  them. 
With  the  proofs  furnished  by  the  results  of  intelligence 
tests,  backed  by  the  child's  record  of  achievement  in  his 
school  work,  it  ought  to  be  possible  to  get  school  boards 
to  act  in  excusing  such  children  from  school  even  if  they 
cannot  be  otherwise  properly  taken  care  of. 

B order-Line  Cases 

Still  more  of  a  problem,  from  all  points  of  view,  are  the 
children  with  intelligence  quotients  ranging  from  65  to  80. 
More  often  than  otherwise  they  appear  superficially  to  be 
entirely  normal  or  even  bright.  They  may  do  excellent 
work  in  the  first  four  grades  where  habit  formation  is  the 
chief  end  to  be  attained  and  where  drill  is  the  chief  feature 


lo8  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

of  instruction.  Sometimes  they  continue  to  do  fairly  well 
even  in  the  upper  grades  in  schools  where  much  rote 
memorizing  prevails  and  where  memorizing  ability  is 
mistakenly  considered  an  index  of  general  intelligence  and 
learning  power.  But  in  properly  conducted  schools  such 
children  begin  to  fall  behind  their  classmates  in  the  fifth 
and  sixth  grades  and  soon  become  hopelessly  retarded. 
They  have  reached  the  limits  of  their  abilities  in  learning 
from  books  or  from  ordinary  schoolroom  instruction. 
They  are  very  much  lacking  in  the  powers  of  initiation, 
discrimination,  and  reasoning  demanded  by  the  higher 
types  of  learning.  They  are  incapable  of  higher  thought 
processes.  Hence  they  fail  in  grammar,  problem-solving 
in  mathematics,  and  in  the  content  subjects  if  the  teaching 
of  the  latter  demands,  as  it  should,  more  than  mere 
memorization  of  facts. 

Teachers  are  often  unjustly  blamed  because  such  chil- 
dren fail  in  their  work.  Parents  wonder  why  their  children 
cannot  learn  under  the  new  teacher  as  well  as  they  did 
under  the  old  when  it  is  in  no  way  the  fault  of  the  teacher. 
The  children  have  simply  reached  their  limit  of  mental 
development.  If  a  child  reaches  the  limit  of  his  mental 
development  at  a  mental  age  of  eleven  years,  he  will  never 
be  much  older  than  eleven  years  mentally,  though  he  lives 
to  be  a  hundred.  Children  of  this  sort  are  too  often  per- 
mitted to  become  the  pacemakers  in  their  classes  to  the 
untold  harm  of  the  brighter  pupils.  But  in  spite  of  all 
attempts  to  keep  them  along  with  the  other  and  brighter 
children  of  the  same  age,  they  finally  get  completely  be- 
yond their  depth  and  fail  day  after  day  in  their  school 
tasks  until  they  begin  to  believe  they  are  absolute  failures 
and  that  success  in  anything  is  impossible  for  them.  They 
grow  discouraged,  give  up  trying,  and  devote  themselves 
to  mischief  or  wait  passively  for  the  legal  age  limit  to  be 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS     109 

reached  so  that  they  can  leave  school  and  earn  something 
in  return  for  their  time.  Meanwhile,  failure  and  idleness 
have  all  too  often  become  habits  that  follow  them  beyond 
the  schoolroom  and  lessen  their  social  efficiency.  In  such 
cases  the  school  has  defeated  its  own  ends. 

This  type  of  child,  the  high-grade  moron,  is  such  a 
problem  partly  because  he  is  not  generally  recognized  as 
being  mentally  deficient.  The  shortcomings  of  the  feeble- 
minded are  generally  evident,  and  no  one  expects  much 
from  them.  The  high-grade  moron,  however,  is  usually 
normal  in  appearance  and  in  ordinary  intercourse  with 
other  people  appears  to  be  normal  mentally.  It  is  only 
when  situations  arise  which  demand  the  functioning  of  the 
higher  forms  of  intelligence  that  he  reveals  his  deficiencies. 
Even  his  teacher  often  fails  to  understand  why  he  con- 
tinually fails  in  his  school  work.  He  is  characterized  as 
"  obstinate  "  and  "  lazy  "  when  in  reality  he  is  mentally 
deficient  and  incapable  of  doing  the  work  demanded  of 
him.  Carefully  conducted  mental  tests  will  reveal  such 
cases  and  should  lead  to  more  sympathetic  and  intelligent 
treatment  of  them. 

When  such  children  become  retarded  as  much  as  two 
years,  it  is  little  less  than  criminal  to  keep  them  in  rural 
or  small-town  schools  where  there  are  no  special  classes 
for  their  benefit  and  where  there  is  not  sufficient  differen- 
tiation of  courses  to  permit  of  their  being  given  amounts 
and  kinds  of  work  suited  to  their  abilities.  If  possible 
they  should  be  sent  to  manual  trades  schools  where  they 
can  be  taught  a  trade  and  at  the  same  time  be  given  as 
much  cultural  training  as  they  are  capable  of  acquiring. 
Otherwise  some  arrangements  should  be  made  whereby 
they  can  leave  school  and  go  to  work  under  the  super- 
vision of  their  parents  or  of  other  responsible  persons  who 
will  instruct  them  in  the  rudiments  of  some  useful  line  of 


no  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

work.  They  might  still  be  under  the  supervision  of  the 
school  authorities  to  the  extent  of  being  obliged  to  spend 
as  many  hours  per  week  in  useful  labor  under  real  instruc- 
tion as  normal  children  spend  in  school;  such  supervision 
of  the  school  authorities  to  continue  until  the  legal  age 
limit  for  compulsory  attendance  is  reached.  And  why 
could  not  school  credits  be  allowed  for  such  work? 

Intelligence  Tests  Used  in  Rating  Teachers 

To  return,  however,  to  my  main  purpose  in  giving  the 
intelligence  tests.  When  I  first  discussed  with  the  teach- 
ers of  the  district  the  feasibility  of  some  scheme  of  rating 
teachers  based  principally  on  the  progress  made  by  their 
pupils,  it  was  objected  that  the  varying  mental  abilities 
of  the  children  would  make  such  rating  unfair  unless  the 
records  of  the  slower  pupils  were  ignored.  But  who  was 
to  be  the  judge  as  to  which  pupils  were  incapable  of  mak- 
ing normal  progress?  It  was  this  situation  which  led  us 
to  make  use  of  the  intelligence  tests.  We  agreed  to  dis- 
card in  calculating  the  teachers'  ratings  the  records  of  all 
pupils  with  intelligence  quotients  below  80.  Later  a  still 
better  scheme  was  worked  out  based  on  the  average  in- 
telligence quotients  of  the  different  schools  in  such  a  way 
as  to  take  full  cognizance  of  the  varying  mental  abilities 
of  pupils.^  Thus,  a  teacher  with  a  school  composed  in 
general  of  dull  children  would  not  suffer  in  comparison 
with  a  teacher  of  equal  abihty  with  a  school  largely  con- 
sisting of  bright  children.  That  is,  two  teachers  of  about 
equal  ability  would  get  approximately  equal  ratings  re- 
gardless of  the  comparative  average  mentalities  of  their 
respective  schools.  In  this  scheme  the  intelligence  test 
was  the  impartial  judge  whose  findings  were  accepted  as 
satisfactory  by  both  teachers  and  superintendent. 

*  See  chapter  vil. 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS     1 1 1 

Identifying  the  Bright  Pupils 

Another  valuable  service  of  the  intelligence  tests  was  in 
locating  the  children  of  very  superior  abilities.  In  one 
school  of  twenty-five  pupils  I  discovered  five  with  intelli- 
gence quotients  around  140  and  none  with  intelligence 
quotients  of  less  than  80.  This  school  was  locally  noted 
as  being  uniformly  fortunate  in  securing  good  teachers 
under  whom  the  pupils  advanced  very  well  indeed.  Of 
course  it  would  be  a  mighty  poor  teacher  who  could  n't 
get  passable  results  with  such  a  school.  In  another  school 
I  found,  working  with  other  children  of  about  the  same 
chronological  age,  a  little  girl  of  eight  years  six  months 
with  a  mental  age  of  twelve  years  and  an  intelligence 
quotient  of  142.  In  the  ordinary  run  of  events  she  would 
probably  have  secured  no  further  recognition  of  her 
superior  abilities  than  regular  promotion  and  graduation 
in  due  time.  She  is  now  nine  years  five  months  old  and 
leading  her  class  in  the  fifth  grade.  She  could  probably 
do  satisfactory  work  in  the  sixth  grade. 

This  type  of  pupil  is  not  generally  recognized  as  a  seri- 
ous problem.  And,  in  truth,  the  situation  is  more  serious 
for  the  pupil  and  the  public  than  for  the  teacher,  however 
unconscious  of  the  fact  the  pupil  and  the  public  may  be. 
As  at  present  organized,  the  average  school  is  probably 
doing  such  children  as  much  harm  as  it  is  good,  in  that  it 
does  not  furnish  them  with  opportunity  and  incentive  to 
develop  their  capacities  to  the  limit.  It  is  from  among 
these  children  that  the  leaders  of  the  future  are  to  come, 
and  the  public  which  foots  the  bills  is  being  cheated  when 
such  children  are  not  given  opportunity  to  develop  as  they 
should.  The  present  generation  is  retarded  in  progress 
by  the  provincial  narrowness  of  natively  intelligent  but 
mentally  blind  leaders  of  the  blind  whose  possibilities  for 


112  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

development  were  early  cramped  to  deformity  in  the  nar- 
row confines  of  the  traditional  elementary  and  secondary 
school  programs  by  being  forced  to  travel  in  a  groove  in 
competition  with  their  mentally  inferior  classmates.  Our 
school  system  can  never  attain  nearly  to  its  maximum 
efficiency  until  programs  and  courses  of  study  are  so 
differentiated  as  to  fit  the  kind  and  quantity  of  work  to 
the  mental  capacities  of  individual  pupils.  The  stand- 
ardized intelligence  test  will  prove  a  useful  tool  in  shaping 
plans  toward  that  end. 

Special  Opportunities  in  City  Systems 

The  problems  noted  above  are  present  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  in  practically  all  school  systems;  but  it  is  in  the 
cities  that,  with  the  help  of  standardized  tests,  they  may 
be  most  easily  solved.  The  city  superintendent  has,  or 
can  arrange  to  have,  special  classes  or  even  special  schools 
to  take  care  of  the  feeble-minded  children  so  as  to  separate 
them  from  the  other  pupils.  Those  troubled  with  sensory 
defects  or  other  serious  physical  deficiencies  can  be  placed 
in  special  classes  or  institutions  provided  for  their  benefit. 
Then  with  two,  or  preferably  three,  divisions  in  each  grade, 
the  children  can  be  assigned  on  the  basis  of  mental  ages 
and  intelligence  quotients  to  groups  from  which  fairly 
uniform  work  can  be  expected. 

Let  us  suppose,  for  instance,  that  intelligence  tests  have 
been  given  to  the  fifth  grade  in  a  large  city  school  and  that 
the  mental  ages  and  intelligence  quotients  of  all  the  pupils 
have  been  recorded  on  cards  together  with  their  respective 
names.  First,  the  average  mental  age  for  the  whole  grade 
should  be  computed  and  all  cards  sorted  out  which  are 
marked  with  mental  ages  more  than  a  year  above  or  below 
the  average  for  the  grade.  The  pupils  represented  by 
these  cards  should  be  given  special  attention.     Their 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS     113 

achievement  records  should  be  studied  and,  where  possible, 
they  should  be  retested  with  the  Binet-Simon  scale  if  that 
scale  was  not  used  in  the  first  instance.  It  will  probably 
be  found  that  most  of  these  pupils  do  not  belong  in  the 
fifth  grade  at  all,  but  in  the  fourth  or  sixth  grade.  Next, 
the  remaining  cards  may  be  sorted  into  four  piles.  Let 
the  first  contain  the  intelligence  quotients  below  70;  the 
second,  those  from  70  to  90;  the  third,  those  from  90  to 
115;  and  the  fourth,  those  above  115.  These  groupings 
are  of  course  rather  arbitrary  and  might  be  varied  some- 
what. All  pupils  with  intelligence  quotients  much  below 
70  would  probably  be  best  placed  in  special  classes  or 
schools.  The  other  three  groups  might  be  termed  the  A, 
B,  and  C  divisions  of  grade  five;  and  the  children  in  each 
group,  being  of  approximately  equal  mental  age  and  in- 
teUigence,  should  be  able  to  do  about  the  same  kind  and 
amount  of  school  work.  Since  there  are  no  sharp  hnes  of 
demarcation  between  groups,  some  further  adjustments 
should  probably  be  made  as  experience  might  dictate. 

The  courses  of  study  could  then  be  adapted  to  the  vari- 
ous groups.  The  group  of  dull  pupils  might  be  assigned  a 
minimum  of  book  work  and  a  maximum  of  manual  train- 
ing. The  pupils  in  the  normal  group  would  perhaps  divide 
their  time  somewhat  evenly  between  these  two  lines  of 
work.  The  superior  group  could  probably  accomplish  as 
much  of  the  manual  work  as  the  normal  group  and  much 
more  of  the  mental  work. 

In  this  way  intelligence  tests  may  assist  in  bringing 
about  that  much-needed  differentiation  in  courses  of  study 
which  will  permit  each  pupil  to  have  work  more  suited  to 
his  particular  abihties.  Although  it  is  advisable,  where 
possible,  to  have  a  double  grouping  based  on  the  results  of 
intelligence  tests  —  namely,  one  grouping  according  to 
mental  ages  for  classification  by  grades  and  the  other 


114  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

grouping  based  on  intelligence  quotients  for  subdivisions 
of  grades  —  such  a  double  grouping  is  not  usually  possible 
in  the  smaller  schools  where  all  the  pupils  in  a  grade  must 
work  together.  In  these  cases  the  grouping  must  depend 
more  on  the  mental  ages,  as  will  be  explained  farther  on. 

Intelligence  Tests  for  Grading  Purposes 

It  was  while  engaged  in  recording  the  mental  ages  and 
intelligence  quotients  of  the  pupils  on  their  respective 
graph  cards  that  the  possible  use  of  intelligence  tests  for 
grading  purposes  occurred  to  me.  I  gradually  became 
conscious  of  the  fact  that,  although  there  was  wide  varia- 
tion in  the  chronological  ages  of  the  children  in  any  one 
grade  (as  they  had  already  been  graded  by  the  standardized 
achievement  tests),  the  mental  ages  in  a  grade  did  not 
usually  appear  to  vary  by  more  than  a  few  months  or  a 
year  from  the  average  mental  age  for  the  grade.  Now  if, 
as  may  apparently  be  expected,  there  is  close  correlation 
between  the  results  of  intelligence  tests  and  the  combined 
results  of  achievement  tests,  that  is,  between  mental 
abihty  and  accomphshment  of  school  tasks,  why  cannot 
intelligence  tests  be  used  instead  of  achievement  tests  for 
grading  purposes,  at  a  considerable  saving  of  time  and 
energy? 

When,  therefore,  I  had  finished  recording  the  results  of 
the  intelligence  tests  on  the  graph  card,  I  proceeded  to 
develop  this  idea.  The  chronological  and  mental  ages  of 
all  the  sixth-grade  pupils  in  the  Tamworth  schools  were 
tabulated  as  shown  in  Table  XIII. 

The  Small  Range  of  Mental  Ages  in  Each  Grade 

The  variation  in  chronological  ages  within  this  sixth  grade 
is  from  nine  years  five  months  for  the  youngest  pupil  to 
fifteen  years  three  months  for  the  oldest  —  a  total  range 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS     115 

TABLE    XIII.     COMPARISON    OF    MENTAL    AND    CHRONO- 
LOGICAL AGES  OF  SIXTH-GRADE  PUPILS 
TAM  WORTH  SCHOOLS 

Number  of  pupils 
Age  Chronological    Mental 

9-0  to    9-5   1 

9-6  to     9-1 1 I 

10-0  to  10-5   o 

10-6  to  I  i-i  1 3 

ii-o  to  1 1-5   2  I 

1 1-6  to  n-i  1 6  7 

12-0  to  12-5   10  14 

12-6  to  I2-II 5  II 

13-0  to  13-5   I  6 

13H3  to  13-11 3 

14-0  to  14-5   2 

14-6  to  14-11 2 

15-0  to  15-S   3 

Total 39  39 

of  five  years  ten  months,  or  of  nearly  six  years.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  variation  in  mental  ages  of  the  same 
children  is  from  eleven  years  five  months  to  thirteen  years 
five  months  —  a  total  range  of  only  two  years.  Indeed,  if 
the  first  two  pupils  and  the  last  pupil  are  omitted,  the 
range  is  only  one  and  a  half  years.  These  facts  would 
indicate  that  the  grading  with  the  achievement  tests  had 
served  to  bring  together  children  of  much  the  same  men- 
tality and  that  intelligence  tests  would  possibly  have 
served  equally  well  if  not  better  for  grading  purposes. 
Similar  tabulations  were  made  for  the  se.cond-  and  third- 
grade  pupils.  The  results  were  not  quite  so  convincing, 
but  were  nevertheless  significant.  The  range  in  mental 
ages  for  the  third  grade  was  one  year  nine  months  and  for 
the  second  grade  two  years  three  months.  There  was 
twenty-two  per  cent  of  overlapping  of  mental  ages  be- 
tween these  two  grades.  The  increasing  range  of  mental 
ages  within  a  grade  as  we  go  down  the  grades  would  seem 


Ii6  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

to  support  the  reasonable  and  suspected  fact  that  for 
accuracy  of  results  these  tests  are  less  dependable  the 
younger  the  children  tested.  The  overlapping  encountered 
in  the  two  lower  grades  led  me  to  make  still  another  tabu- 
lation —  namely,  of  the  seventh  grade  —  so  that  I  could 
compare  it  with  the  sixth  grade  on  the  basis  of  the  over- 
lapping of  mental  ages.  There  was  an  overlap  of  about 
fourteen  per  cent  between  these  two  grades.  This  would  in- 
dicate that  the  amount  of  overlapping  also  increases  from 
higher  to  lower  grades  and  probably  for  the  same  reason 
mentioned  above  for  the  increase  in  range  of  mental  ages. 

Mental  Ages  of  Pupils  in  Each  Grade 

Then  I  began  to  wonder  how  much  differently  the  pupils 
would  have  been  grouped  by  grades  if  the  grading  had  been 
done  with  intelligence  tests  instead  of  achievement  tests. 
So  I  constructed  a  distribution  as  shown  in  Table  XIV. 
Having  no  established  data  as  to  what  the  limits  of  the 
range  should  be  for  the  different  grades,  considerable  ex- 
perimenting was  necessary  with  different  arrangements  of 
intervals.  A  two-year  range  was  finally  adopted,  since  I 
had  already  found,  as  described  above,  that  the  range  of 
mental  ages  for  each  grade  was  about  two  years.  Since 
children  ordinarily  enter  school  between  ages  six  and  eight, 
and  since  the  chronological  age  of  a  normal  child  corre- 
sponds with  his  mental  age,  the  first  grade  was  assigned 
the  range  of  mental  ages  from  6-0  to  7-1 1.  (The  ex- 
pression "  7-1 1  "  means  7  years  11  months  and  so  for  like 
expressions.)  The  interval  used  in  Table  XIV  is  one  year, 
but  two  intervals  are  allowed  for  each  grade  in  order  to 
show  a  more  exact  distribution.  This  arrangement  also 
allows  for  an  overlapping  between  grades  of  one  year  of 
mental  age.  Thus,  the  normal  range  for  the  first-grade 
pupils  is  from  6-0  to  7-1 1,  that  for  the  second  grade  from 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS    117 

7-0  to  8-1 1,  that  for  the  third  grade  from  8-0  to  9-1 1,  and 
so  on.  Moreover,  the  children  in  any  annual  age  group 
may  be  normally  in  either  of  two  grades.  For  instance 
the  nine-year-olds  are  normally  placed  in  either  the  third 
or  fourth  grade.  The  first  grade  might  be  regarded  as 
having  a  range  of  three  years  because  all  children  with 
mental  ages  below  6-0  will  naturally  be  included  in  that 
grade.  A  somewhat  similar  statement  may  be  made  for 
the  eighth  grade,  since  it  might  be  expected  to  include  any 
children  with  mental  ages  above  13-0.  This  bunching  of 
mental  ages  is,  of  course,  due  to  the  fact  that  these  grades 
are  the  lowest  and  highest  respectively  in  the  school. 

'  TABLE  XIV.'   MENTAL  AGES  OF  PUPILS  IN  EACH  GRADB 


'  Mental  ages 

Grades 

Total 

1 

// 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Sto  5-» 

8 

4 

4 

1 
s 

4 

I 
6 

I 
5 

^ 

8 

6  to   6-ir.^.. 

39 
45 

43 

7  to   7-ri,.... 

43 

46 

93 

8  to   8-11 ^ 

2 

28 
41 

8z 

9  to  9-11... .. 

5 

26 
19 

77 

10  to  lO-II 

3 

3 

27 
36 

S6 

II  to  II-II 

4 
I 

23 
47 

70 

12  to  12-11...... 

4 
3 

18 
28 

73 

13  to  13-11..... 

3 
6 

3 
34 

36 

14  and  over 

IS 

SS 

Total 

94 

98 

78 

56 

73 

86 

67 

40 

S9» 

ii8  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Grading  by  Mental  and  Achievement  Tests  Sub- 
stantially THE  Same 

Table  XIV  shows  the  distribution  of  pupils  as  they  are 
actually  graded  in  this  district  on  the  basis  of  achievement 
in  standardized  tests.  Five  hundred  and  ninety-two 
children  are  represented.  All  figures  between  the  heavy 
zigzag  lines  represent  children  normally  placed  according 
to  their  mental  ages.  The  figures  outside  these  lines  repre- 
sent pupils  working,  for  some  reason,  in  higher  or  lower 
grades  than  the  tests  show  them  to  be  fitted  for.  Take  the 
third-grade  column,  for  instance.  In  this  grade  there  are 
28  children  between  8-0  and  8-1 1  and  41  between  9-0  and 
9- II  that  rightly  belong  there.  There  are  four  children 
in  the  grade  that,  according  to  their  mental  ages,  ought  to 
be  in  the  first  or  second  grade,  and  on  the  same  basis  still 
other  children  belong  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades. 

Now,  if  all  the  schools  were  graded  strictly  on  the  basis 
of  the  mental  ages  of  pupils,  all  the  figures  would  fall  be- 
tween the  zigzag  fines.  Hence  89  out  of  592,  or  15  per 
cent,  of  the  pupils  are  working  above  or  below  their  indi- 
cated mental  capacities.  Of  these,  7.1  per  cent  are  work- 
ing above  or  trying  to,  and  7.9  per  cent  are  working  below. 
This  shows  on  the  whole  a  pretty  close  agreement  between 
the  results  of  intelligence  and  achievement  tests  and  indi- 
cates that  either  gives  substantially  the  same  basis  for 
grading. 

I  have  studied  the  records  of  the  children  whose  mental 
ages  show  them  to  be  misplaced  and  find  that  most  of  those 
working  above  normal  grade  are  pupils  who  had  been 
pushed  too  far  ahead  by  their  teachers  before  the  prelimi- 
nary grading  took  place  and  whom,  since  they  were  work- 
ing hard  to  hold  their  places,  we  did  not  demote  when 
regrading.     About  half  of  the  pupils  shown  as  working 


I 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS     119 

below  their  apparent  mental  capacities  are  accounted  for 
by  retardation  due  to  sickness  or  absence,  poor  general 
health,  sensory  defects,  etc.  Most  of  the  others  remain  a 
mystery  as  yet.  Gradually  we  hope  to  work  most  of  the 
misplaced  ones  into  their  proper  mental-age  groups  so  that 
the  grouping  of  pupils  throughout  the  district  will  be  based 
pretty  closely  on  mental  age. 

City  schools  can  be  graded  with  intelligence  tests  into 
eight  mental-age  groups  as  shown  in  Table  XIV  and  then, 
since  there  will  be  a  wide  variation  of  intelligence  quotients 
within  each  mental-age  group,  these  groups  can  be  sub- 
divided into  grade  divisions  or  sections  as  explained  above. 
But  the  smaller  rural  schools  without  grade  subdivisions 
must  necessarily  be  satisfied  with  a  less  perfect  distribution. 

A  Proposed  Plan  of  Grading  in  a  Rural  School 

Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  given  the  intelligence  tests 
in  a  rural  school  and  that  the  mental  ages  and  intelligence 
quotients  of  the  pupils  arc  found  to  be  as  shown  in  Table 
XV.  Now,  let  us  select  from  this  table  all  the  pupils  with 
mental  ages  within  the  first-grade  range  (all  below  8-0); 
and  let  us  Ust  them  separately  in  Table  XVI  with  their 
respective  intelligence  quotients. 

In  discussing  Table  XIV  it  was  noted  that  part  of  the 
children  in  the  7-0  to  7-1 1  age  group  would  normally  be 
in  the  second  grade.  How  shall  we  decide  which  ones  to 
place  in  the  second  grade?  To  begin  with,  no  child  Just 
beginning  school  will  belong  there.  Accordingly,  in  Table 
XVI  let  us  mark  with  a  star  the  number  of  each  pupil  who 
attended  school  the  previous  year.  These  pupils  may  enter 
the  second  grade  if  their  mentality  is  normal  or  better. 
Let  us  therefore  mark  with  an  additional  star  those  with 
intelligence  quotients  of  90  or  above.  Those  thus  marked 
with  a  double  star  may  be  assigned  to  the  second  grade. 


120 


STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


TABLE  XV.    RESULTS  OF  MENTAL  TESTS  IN  A  SELECTED 

SCHOOL 


PupU 

Menial 

Intelligence 

PupU 

Mental 

Intelligence 

number 

age 

quotient 

number 

age 

quotient 

I 

S-o 

76 

23 

7-0 

80 

3 

7-1 

76 

24 

13^ 

106 

3 

7-1 1 

103 

25 

14-7 

110 

4 

7-9 

79 

26 

9-4 

73 

S 

6-II 

I<X) 

27 

7-9 

83 

6 

8-4 

91 

28 

9-8 

80 

7 

iS-7 

128 

29 

7-8 

68 

8 

IO-8 

ICX) 

30 

14-0 

no 

9 

15-0 

123 

31 

9-10 

78 

lO 

II-IO 

84 

32 

9-c 

93 

II 

13-7 

108 

33 

II-O 

108 

12 

10-9 

132 

34 

12-4 

80 

13 

9-2 

96 

35 

9-0 

95 

14 

ii-i 

100 

36 

8-0 

92 

IS 

13-9 

138 

37 

10-6 

85 

i6 

9-7 

101 

38 

lO-I 

73 

17 

8-5 

71 

39 

8-6 

100 

i8 

lO-O 

90 

40 

9-1 

85 

19 

7-9 

95 

41 

12-0 

83 

20 

10-6 

70 

42 

13-9 

102 

21 

13-S 

108 

43 

8-7 

73 

33 

8-6 

82 

TABLE  XVI. 


Pupil 

number 

X 

3 

f 

19** 
39* 


PUPILS  WITH  MENTAL  AGES  BELOW  EIGHT 

YEARS 

iDafa  from  Table  XV) 


Mental 

Intelligence 

age 

quotient 

S-o 
7-1 

76 
76 

7-1 X 

103 

7-9 
6-ix 

79 
100 

7-9 
7-0 

7-9 

7-8          i 

83 
68 

I 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS     121 

All  the  others  in  this  table  will  therefore  go  to  make  up  the 
first  grade. 

Next  let  us  consider  the  mental-age  group  from  8-0  to 
8-1 1  and  list  them  in  Table  XVII.    Part  of  these  belong  in 

TABLE  XVII.    PUPILS  WITH  MENTAL  AGES  BETWEEN  EIGHT 
AND  NINE 


PupU 
number 
6* 

17 

33 

36* 

39* 

43 

the  third  grade  and  part  in  the  second.  We  will  choose 
those  with  intelligence  quotients  of  90  or  better  for  the 
third  grade  and  mark  each  of  their  numbers  with  a  star. 
The  second  grade  will  then  consist  of  pupils  17,  22,  and  43 
from  Table  XVII  and  pupils  3,  and  19  from  Table  XVI. 

Table  XVIII  lists  the  pupils  of  the  mental-age  group 
from  9-0  to  9-1 1.  The  starred  numbers  (intelligence 
quotients  of  90  or  above)  will  be  placed  in  the  fourth 
grade,  while  the  rest,  together  with  the  starred  numbers 
from  Table  XVII,  will  make  up  the  third  grade. 


(Dala  from  Table 

XV) 

Mental 

Intelligence 

age 

quotient 

8-4 

91 

»-s 

71 

8-6 

83 

8-0 

93 

8-6 

xoo 

8-7 

73 

TABLE  XVIII. 

PUPILS  WITH  MENTAL  AGES 
AND  TEN 
(fiata  from  Table  XV) 

BETWEEN  N] 

Pupil 

Mental 

Intelligence 

number 

oge 

quotient 

13* 

9-3 

96 

i6* 

9-7 

lOI 

36 

9-4 

73 

38 

9-8 

80 

3^* 

Q-IO 

78 

33* 

9-0 

93 

35* 

9-0 

P 

40 

9-1 

8S 

122  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Table  XIX  lists  the  age  group  from  lo-o  to  lo-ii. 
From  this  table  pupils  8,  12,  and  18  will  be  placed  in  grade 
five,  while  pupils  20,  37,  and  t,^  will  go  with  pupils  13,  16, 
32,  and  35  from  Table  XVIII  to  make  up  the  fourth  grade. 

TABLE  XIX.    PUPILS  WITH  MENTAL  ACES  BETWEEN  TEN 


AND  ELEVEN 

(Data  from  Table  XV) 

Pupil 
number 

Mental 
age 

Intelligence 
quotient 

8* 

10-8 

100 

12* 

18* 

20 

37 

38 

10-9 

lO-O 

10-6 
10-6 

lO-I 

132 
90 
70 
8S 
73 

There  may  be  some  question  as  to  the  advisability  of 
placing  pupil  18  in  the  fifth  grade,  since  his  intelligence 
quotient  is  barely  90.  On  the  other  hand,  if  pupil  12  has 
had  good  instruction  and  is  ambitious  and  industrious,  he 
may  be  able  to  work  in  grade  six,  since  his  intelligence 
quotient  of  132  shows  him  to  be  a  pupil  of  very  superior 
ability.  The  remaining  children  listed  in  Table  XV  may 
be  assigned  to  their  grades  in  like  manner,  whereupon  the 
preliminary  grading  of  the  school  is  completed.  Some 
readjusting  will  probably  be  found  necessary  for  various 
reasons  which  the  results  of  intelligence  tests  do  not  allow 
for.  But  when  once  adjusted  there  should  be  possible  a 
uniformity  of  achievement  within  grades  that  is  absolutely 
impossible  in  the  school  as  ordinarily  graded,  where  pupils 
differing  in  mental  age  by  as  much  as  five  or  six  years  are 
often  found  working  together,  or  trying  to  work  together 
in  the  same  grade. 

As  I  have  said  before,  when  I  first  attempted  to  grade 
pupils  there  were  available  no  standardized  group  intelli- 
gence tests  that  would  cover  all  the  grades.    I  therefore 


SOME  USES  FOR  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS     123 

used  achievement  tests  for  grading  purposes,  as  explained 
in  chapter  iv.  Although  that  grading  has  proved  satis- 
factory, and  although  Table  XIV  plainly  shows  it  agrees 
closely  with  the  grading  that  would  have  been  made  if 
intelhgence  tests  had  been  used,  nevertheless,  if  I  had  any 
more  preliminary  grading  to  do,  I  should  do  it  with  the 
group  intelligence  tests  supplemented  by  the  Binet-Simon 
individual  test  wherever  there  was  any  doubt  of  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  results  of  the  group  tests. 


CHAPTER  X 

REACTION  OF  TEACHERS  AND  PUPILS  TO 
STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

After  having  set  forth  my  own  views  as  to  the  value  of 
standardized  tests  in  improving  the  efficiency  of  the 
schools,  and  after  having  described  in  considerable  detail 
my  methods  of  using  the  tests  for  such  a  purpose,  it  oc- 
curred to  me  that  it  would  be  only  fair  to  give  the  teachers 
and  pupils  a  chance  to  tell  their  side  of  the  story;  to  tell  in 
what  ways,  if  any,  standardized  tests  had  been  of  benefit 
to  them.  If  the  work  carried  on  with  the  tests  for  two 
years  had  been  as  successful  as  I  had  judged  it  to  be  from 
my  point  of  view,  the  reports  from  the  majority  of  the 
teachers  and  pupils  should  be  favorable  and  would  thus 
afford  considerable  support  to  my  own  views  as  published. 
If  their  reports  were  not  favorable,  then  many  of  the 
values  I  had  claimed  for  the  tests  would  have  to  be  dis- 
counted and  some  of  them  would  have  to  be  declared 
entirely  imaginary. 

Accordingly,  all  the  teachers  were  invited  to  submit  a 
short  paper  on  the  advantages  of  using  standardized  tests, 
this  paper  to  be  based  wholly  on  their  own  two  years' 
experience  in  using  the  tests  in  their  schools.  Nineteen 
teachers  responded.  The  papers  were  well  shuffled  before 
any  of  them  had  been  read,  and  every  other  one  beginning 
with  the  first  was  then  chosen  for  reproduction  here. 
Afterward  those  not  chosen  were  read,  and  all  .were  found 
to  be  in  the  same  vein  except  three  which  were  unfavor- 
able. It  was  mere  chance  that  none  of  the  unfavorable 
ones  were  drawn  for  reproduction. 


REACTION  OF  TEACHERS  AND  PUPILS    125 

One  of  the  papers  which  expressed  unfavorable  opinions 
of  standardized  tests  was  from  a  very  excellent  teacher  of 
many  years'  experience  and  very  thorough  training  in  the 
normal  schools  of  twenty-five  years  ago.  In  fact  she  had 
taught  several  years  in  teacher-training  schools  as  a  young 
woman.  The  fact  that  she  had  fallen  from  high  estate  to 
the  level  of  a  small  rural  school  speaks  for  itself.  She  had 
got  into  a  rut  which  was  too  comfortable  to  leave  for  new 
pathways.  Worse  still,  her  mind,  during  the  last  stages  of 
its  plasticity,  had  apparently  been  caught  in  that  violent 
agitation  of  ten  or  a  dozen  years  ago  which  declared  any 
sort  of  test  or  examination  to  be  a  cruel  abomination, 
highly  detrimental  to  the  physical,  mental,  and  moral 
health  of  its  victims.  That  agitation  was,  of  course,  a 
reaction  against  the  foolish,  unreasonable,  and  unjust 
so-called  examinations  in  vogue  in  city  schools  at  that 
time.  This  particular  teacher's  mind  seems  to  have 
crystallized  at  that  point,  and  she  now  has  absolutely  no 
use  for  any  kind  of  a  test.  She  had  heard  of  standardized 
tests  and  that  was  about  all.  She  would  not  discuss  their 
purpose  or  advantages  nor  try  to  see  any  good  in  them. 
She  gave  them  carefully  and  painstakingly  as  required, 
but  without  interest  and  under  protest,  so  that  neither  she 
nor  her  school  derived  much  benefit  from  them. 

Another  of  the  unfavorable  responses  was  from  a  local 
crank  with  no  special  training  and  little  education.  She 
had  "  kept  school  "  for  many  years  and  had  acquired  a 
local  reputation  as  a  "  smart  "  teacher  mostly  on  account 
of  her  disciplinary  ability  which  was  of  the  lowest  order. 
She  had  few  of  the  qualifications  of  a  successful  teacher 
and  almost  no  conception  of  a  teacher's  most  important 
duties  and  responsibilities.   No  newfangled  notions  for  her. 

The  third  was  from  a  young  teacher,  daughter  of  a 
school  board  member,  who  had  little  interest  in  anything 


126  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

but  her  salary  and  a  good  time.  Standardized  tests  took 
up  too  much  of  her  "  spare  time."  I  cannot  consider  any- 
one of  these  papers  as  reflecting  seriously  upon  the  value 
of  standardized  tests. 

The  following  are  the  eight  papers  chosen  for  reproduc- 
tion: 

What  the  Teachers  Think  of  the  Tests 

My  appreciation  of  having  had  the  privilege  of  introducing 
standardized  tests  in  my  school  cannot  be  too  strongly  empha- 
sized. Before  I  began  using  these  tests  under  the  guidance  of 
Superintendent  Brooks,  I  had  always  depended  upon  my  own 
selection  of  twenty  or  thirty  questions  (examinations  so 
called,  and  dreaded  by  the  pupils)  to  be  thought  out  and  pre- 
pared before  school  opened  in  September,  then  again  in  June. 
How  much  better  to  have  these  tests  scientifically  prepared 
for  us! 

No  school  can  accurately  determine  the  progress  of  its  pupils, 
either  as  a  group  or  individually,  without  using  these  tests. 

One  of  the  greatest  advantages,  after  obtaining  the  results 
of  the  tests  on  the  graph  cards,  is  that  they  show  just  wherein 
the  teacher  or  the  individual  pupil  has  succeeded  or  failed. 
Nearly  every  pupil  is  interested  in  studying  his  graph  card  to 
discover  his  weak  points  and  is  desirous  of  exhibiting  and 
explaining  the  card  to  his  parents.  With  the  help  of  such 
concrete  evidence  as  these  cards  furnish  one  can  face  an  irate 
parent  with  much  greater  assurance  when  he  or  she  demands 
to  know  why  James  was  not  promoted. 

One  essential  of  classroom  instruction  is  to  have  some 
scientific  method  of  measuring  the  progress  of  pupils  and  classes. 
Up  to  quite  recently  we  have  been  unable  to  compare  accu- 
rately teacher  with  teacher,  school  with  school,  and  pupil  with 
pupil.  The  standardized  tests  furnish  us  with  standards  by 
means  of  which  such  comparisons  can  be  fairly  and  accurately 
made. 

E.  M.  W. 


REACTION  OF  TEACHERS  AND  PUPILS    127 

I  now  consider  standardized  tests  the  only  fair  means  of 

measuring  a  pupil's  ability  and  progress  in  his  studies.  For 
several  years  I  had  been  reading  about  the  tests  and  of  course 
realized,  after  five  years  of  trying  to  grade  rural  schools  accord- 
ing to  my  own  standard  of  efficiency  or  those  of  the  super- 
intendent, that  we  needed  something  of  the  sort;  but  I  did  not 
believe  that  a  method  had  been  found  that  would  truly  work 
until  I  used  standardized  tests  this  year  in  the  Chocorua  school 
under  Superintendent  Brooks. 

I  was  eager  to  give  the  first  tests  out  of  curiosity  and  I 
watched  with  much  interest  the  attitude  of  the  children  towards 
them.  They  were  alert,  quiet,  and  determined.  The  fact  that 
they  were  being  measured  by  a  fair  standard  in  comparison  with 
thousands  of  other  boys  and  girls  made  them  feel  the  "exams" 
were  going  to  be  really  important  and  worth  while.  They  knew 
that  whatever  work  they  did  would  be  appreciated  at  its  true 
value  and  corrected  fairly,  and  that  the  results  would  be  an 
accurate  index  of  their  achievement. 

When  I  corrected  the  tests  I  became  enthusiastic.  The 
saving  of  time  and  energy  from  the  old  method  of  examina- 
tions, and,  above  all,  the  fact  that  they  showed  up  in  every 
study  the  weak  points  of  each  pupil  was  truly  remarkable. 
I  became  so  interested  that  I  read  JVIonroe's  Measuring  the 
Results  of  Teaching  and  Educational  Tests  aiul  Measurements 
through  again,  understandingly  at  last,  and  even  sent  to  the 
State  Library  for  further  information. 

After  copying  the  graph  cards  I  knew  exactly  where  to 
begin  with  each  pupil  to  make  up  his  or  her  deficiencies.  The 
whole  school  was  weak  in  decimals,  and  I  did  not  even  realize 
it  until  the  tests  proved  the  fact. 

The  second  time  I  gave  the  tests  I  put  aside  every  study  and 
gave  them  all  in  two  days.  I  did  not  let  the  pupils  know  that 
they  were  coming  until  the  morning  we  began  work.  When 
their  graph  cards  came  back  the  last  time  the  children  could 
hardly  wait  to  see  them.  They  are  going  to  make  copies  of 
the  cards  and  try  *'on  their  own"  to  come  up  to  standard  in 
every  subject  in  the  spring  term. 


ia8  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

It  is  the  spirit  we  want  —  the  spirit  of  fair  play,  comp>etition, 
and  desire  to  work  hard  for  a  definite  goal.  I  hope  every 
teacher  in  the  district  has  found  her  v;ork  with  the  tests  as 
inspiring  and  helpful  as  I  have. 

V.  L.  W. 

I  think  that  standardized  tests  are  the  greatest  boon  that 
has  ever  been  invented  for  the  benefit  of  teachers,  especially 
for  those  who  are  interested  in,  and  conscientiously  working  to 
obtain,  the  best  possible  results  with  each  child. 

These  tests  save  the  teacher  both  work  and  worry  —  the 
former  by  having  the  questions  prepared  and  valued  without 
aid  from  the  teacher,  and  the  latter  because  the  teacher  now 
has  the  comfort  of  knowing  that  even  though  Helen  may  fall  a 
few  points  below  grade  when  the  scores  are  added,  it  is  no 
fault  in  reckoning  valuation  of  questions  and  exercises  or  in 
computing  ranks.  There  is  proof  enough  even  to  convince  an 
irate  parent  if  occasion  demands. 

Furthermore,  standardized  tests  show  a  teacher  where  the 
weak  points  are  in  the  pupils'  work  so  that  she  can  conserve 
time  and  effort  by  drilling  each  child  upon  the  particular  line 
of  work  in  which  he  or  she  is  below  grade,  instead  of  upon  the 
curriculum  as  a  whole  without  regard  to  the  standing  of 
individual  pupils  in  particular  studies.  Without  the  tests  there 
is  no  accurate  way  of  telling  what  grade  a  pupil  belongs  in. 

Last,  but  not  least,  these  tests  show  a  teacher  whether  she  is 
gaining  or  losing  in  skill  according  to  the  progress  made  by 
children  of  average  ability  under  her  control.  This  knowledge, 
either  way,  has  proven  a  stimulant  to  me,  as  I  have  been  able 
with  my  superintendent's  aid  to,  in  part  at  least,  correct  many 
faults  and  realize  others  that  need  to  be  corrected  in  order  to 
make  my  teaching  more  eflficient. 

L.  E.  M. 

I  have  become  a  firm  believer  in  standardized  tests.  During 
the  two  years  they  have  been  used  in  my  school,  I  have  found 
them  to  be  a  source  of  help  and  an  incentive  to  better  work  on 


REACTION  OF  TEACHERS  AND  PUPILS     129 

the  part  of  the  pupils.    I  consider  them  a  fair  test  of  the  ability 
and  progress  of  the  pupils  both  individually  and  as  a  school. 

By  means  of  them,  the  teacher  is  able  to  discover  readily 
the  weak  points  in  the  work  of  her  pupils.  This  enables  her  to 
know  which  pupils  need  special  help.  By  giving  this  special 
help  she  is  enabled  to  raise  the  standard  of  her  school  as  a 
whole  as  well  as  aid  the  individual  pupil  to  keep  up  to  grade. 

To  me,  another  proof  that  these  tests  are  helpful  is  the  fact 
that  they  create  a  marked  degree  of  enthusiasm  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils.  They  look  forward  eagerly  to  the  "testing 
time,"  each  one  eager  to  do  his  or  her  best.  I  believe  that  the 
enthusiasm  thus  aroused  is  a  stepping-stone  to  better  work 
and,  therefore,  to  better  results,  the  goal  for  which  we,  as 
teachers,  are  striving. 

A.  N.  H. 

Standard  tests  have  helped  me  first,  because  they  determine 
what  points  in  each  course  of  study  need  the  greatest  amount 
of  emphasis  and  drill.  Of  course,  that  does  not  mean  that  we 
should  drill  on  the  exact  material  used  in  any  of  the  tests; 
for  that  would  be  unfair  to  the  test  by  rendering  it  valueless  for 
accurate  measurements.  However,  they  do  point  out  the 
kinds  of  things  which  should  receive  most  attention  in  the  case 
of  a  particular  pupil,  class,  or  school. 

Too  often  in  rural  schools  the  grading  has  been  left  to  the 
teacher's  judgment  —  quite  frequently  to  the  judgment  of  a 
teacher  untrained  and  inexperienced.  How  can  such  grading 
be  uniform  with  no  set  standard  for  a  guide?  While  the  State 
Program  outlines  the  courses  of  study  for  each  grade,  it  does 
not  set  any  standards  of  speed,  accuracy,  and  thoroughness 
with  which  the  work  shall  be  covered.  Here  again,  standard 
tests  solve  the  problem.  They  prevent  us  from  trying  to 
produce  expert  accountants  as  well  as  from  allowing  children 
to  fall  into  the  slipshod  habit  of  using  all  the  time  they  desire 
for  a  task. 

Every  teacher  has  certain  weak  points.  That  is,  her  teach- 
ing ability  is  of  a  higher  order  in  some  subjects  than  in  others. 


130  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

But  how  can  the  teacher  herself  be  made  to  realize  her  failings? 
Certainly  not  always  from  her  own  observation,  for  self-criti- 
cism is  bound  to  be  lenient.  She  may  resent  the  most  tactful 
criticisms  from  others,  but  she  must  realize  that  the  standards 
set  by  thousands  of  children  are  not  unreasonable  for  the 
children  of  her  school  and  that  if  the  majority  of  them  do  not 
attain  to  these  standards,  she  herself  is  chiefly  at  fault. 

Tests  which  determine  the  mental  ability  of  the  individual 
child  are  invaluable.  Much  worry  and  nervous  strain  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  as  well  as  of  the  child  may  be  avoided  by 
study  of  the  results  obtained  from  such  tests.  It  may  be  said 
that  from  daily  association  a  teacher  is  able  to  gauge  accurately 
the  pupil's  grade  of  mentality,  but  in  many  cases  this  is  proved 
to  be  incorrect.  A  mental  examination  is  as  important  as  a 
physical  examination.  The  teacher  may  expect  too  much  of  a 
pupil  who  is  utterly  incapable  of  doing  the  work  required  of 
him.  In  this  case  the  child  becomes  discouraged  —  sometimes 
nervous  —  and  unable  to  learn  even  to  the  extent  to  which  he 
would  be  capable  under  conditions  normal  to  him.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  teacher  may  fall  too  easily  into  the  habit  of 
allowing  the  mentally  deficient  child  to  fall  below  his  own 
standard. 

Some  children  seem  to  be  in  a  state  of  mental  lethargy  from 
one  cause  or  another  and  need  some  slight  stimulus  to  arouse 
their  better  ability.  The  test,  being  something  unusual,  often 
arouses  their  interest  and  unconsciously  they  use  their  ability 
to  think.  Once  the  results  are  obtained,  it  is,  in  many  cases, 
an  easy  matter  to  get  better  results  all  around,  merely  because 
of  knowing  that  the  child  is  capable  of  better  things. 

Finally,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  results  received  from  the 
use  of  standardized  tests  showing  progress  or  lack  of  it  on  the 
part  of  pupils  are  a  much  fairer  means  of  judging  the  teacher's 
ability  than  mere  observation  or  hearsay.  Results  count,  no 
matter  what  the  method.  H.  H.  E. 

I  heartily  believe  that  the  standardized  tests  are  of  inesti- 
mable value  to  my  school.    The  children  realize  the  benefits 


REACTION  OF  TEACHERS  AND  PUPILS     131 

derived  from  the  tests  and  are  always  eager  to  see  their  graphs 
as  soon  as  their  scores  have  been  recorded. 

Since  it  is  an  acknowledged  fact  that  the  general  aim  of 
education  is  social  efficiency,  it  is  up  to  us  as  teachers  to  place 
a  great  amount  of  stress  on  the  "  tool "  subjects.  In  these  sub- 
jects certain  standards  have  been  established  so  that  we  may 
know  when  our  pupils  have  acquired  the  desired  proficiency 
in  each  subject.  Through  these  standards  it  is  possible  for  us 
to  learn  many  things:  first,  the  weak  spots  in  our  teaching,  so 
that  we  may  know  to  what  part  of  the  work  we  should  give  more 
emphasis  and  drill;  second,  the  tests  enable  us  to  select  the 
individual  pupils  who  need  our  special  attention  in  certain 
subjects;  third,  the  comparison  of  my  gra})h  cards  with  those 
from  other  schools  certainly  proves  a  motive  for  better  work  on 
my  part  and  the  same  thing  proves  true  when  the  individual 
pupil  compares  his  graph  card  with  that  of  his  classmate; 
fourth,  through  the  results  of  the  standardized  tests  the  super- 
intendent and  the  public  in  general  are,  or  may  be,  kept  in 
close  touch  with  the  everyday  work  of  the  schools.  Thus,  if 
we  do  our  best,  and  that  best  is  good,  we  are  rewarded  for  our 
efforts  by  the  appreciation  of  those  interested  in  the  betterment 
of  education,  as  well  as  by  the  knowledge  that  we  are  doing 
something  really  worth  while. 

In  conclusion,  I  feel  safe  in  saying  that  the  standardized 
test,  as  a  means  of  scientific  measurement,  is  one  of  the  great- 
est contributions  ever  offered  to  education. 

E.  M.  W. 

After  a  fairly  long  experience  in  a  single  grade,  I  found  myself 
facing  the  problem  of  rendering  sufficiently  elastic  to  cover 
seven  grades  the  minutes  and  the  mental  energy  formerly 
devoted  to  one.  The  problem,  to  me,  did  not  become  any 
easier  from  the  fact  that  the  school  was  under  unusually  alert 
supervision.  Also,  my  experience  has  bestowed  upon  me  a 
number  of  things,  among  them  a  knowledge  of  what  is  due  the 
children  and  a  fairly  accurate  idea  of  my  own  limitations.  I 
will  pass  over  the  adjustment  period,  at  the  beginning  of  the 


132  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

term,  to  that  which  I  at  first  considered  as  merely  another 
"superintendent's  hobby,"  standardized  tests. 

Now  a  little  enthusiasm  is  a  much  more  constructive  emo- 
tion than  mild  toleration,  especially  in  dealing  with  the  inevi- 
table, so  I  met  the  tests  with  what  I  could  command  on  short 
notice.  To-day  I  consider  that  the  tests  have  been  a  great 
help  in  facing  the  single  schoolroom  of  many  grades.  How 
much  might  they  not  accomplish  in  one  grade  in  the  develop- 
ment of  different  groups  within  the  class!  Most  teachers  know 
that  no  program  of  classes  can  be  iron-bound  and  successful 
at  the  same  time.  Right  here  came  my  first  great  aid  from 
standardized  tests  and  the  resulting  graphs.  They  enabled 
me  to  adjust  the  program  to  the  needs  of  this  particular  school 
as  a  whole.  Then  as  a  study  of  the  graphs  revealed  the  strength 
and  weakness  of  individuals,  weak  points  were  the  subjects  of 
special  attention.  For  instance,  in  grade  four,  Ann,  Lucy, 
and  Tom  readily  understand  anything  that  they  are  able  to 
read,  while  James  and  Edith  are  slow  in  grasping  the  thought 
and  often  do  not  arrive  at  all.  James  and  Edith  are  given 
much  personal  drill,  while  the  others  are  kept  at  attention  that 
there  may  be  no  regression  on  their  part.  On  the  other  hand, 
Lucy  and  Tom  are  held  rigidly  to  account  when  it  comes  to 
number  work.  Thus  the  limited  time  may  be  used  to  the  best 
advantage. 

George's  graph  disclosed  the  fact  that,  with  an  intelligence 
quotient  of  112,  in  multiplication  and  subtraction  he  was  far 
below  grade.  This  indicated  need  of  drill  in  these  two  essen- 
tials which  was  faithfully  administered.  George's  graph  line 
is  now  rapidly  approaching  normal.  I  discovered  that  the 
reading  vocabulary  and  the  history  of  the  entire  school  were 
considerably  below  my  personal  estimate  of  the  facts.  Again 
the  proper  remedy  was  indicated  by  the  graphs. 

Further  study  of  the  graphs  brought  to  light  a  number  of 
points  below  grade  in  problem  work.  A  consideration  of  the 
intelligence  quotients,  followed  by  a  little  introspection,  placed 
the  blame  squarely  at  my  own  door. 

Thus  these  tests,  given  at  definite  periods,  act  as  a  sort  of 


REACTION  OF  TEACHERS  AND  PUPILS     133 

efficiency  expert  to  hold  us  to  account.  They  uncover  our 
weaknesses  and  by  way  of  encouragement  show  us  our  good 
points.  They  also  are  of  considerable  tonic  value.  They  offer 
a  definite  goal  and  I  find  that  they  are  the  subject  of  a  very 
genuine  enthusiasm  among  the  children. 

Personally  they  are  satisfying,  as  they  are  a  protection 
against  the  unfair  and  dilhcult  tests  given  by  the  average 
superintendent  or  teacher.  If  one  has  had  any  experience  with 
superintendents'  "  unstandardized  tests,"  it  is  gratifying  to 
feel  that  one's  pupils  are  being  held  up  to  a  standard  which  has 
been  carefully  worked  out  among  many  children  and  is  entirely 
possible  of  achievement  with  a  reasonable  expenditure  of  time 
and  energy;  that,  and  the  knowledge  that  the  mental  age  and 
general  intelligence  of  each  pupil  is  considered,  contributes  a 
serenity  infrequently  associated  with  the  "examination" 
period. 

As  time  goes  on,  the  tests  themselves  will  probably  vary  and 
improve.  If  widely  adopted  they  will  render  our  educational 
procedure  more  uniform  in  efficiency;  and  children  with  parents 
of  nomadic  tendencies  or  changing  business  affiliations  will  not 
suffer  so  great  a  loss  of  time,  pride,  and  ambition  of  being  "put 
back"  every  time  they  enter  a  new  schooL 

G.  E.  D. 

I  certainly  think  that  the  standardized  tests  are  fine.  They 
are  a  great  benefit  to  the  children.  I  find  that  a  child  who 
takes  the  standard  tests  two  or  three  times  a  year  does  much 
better  work,  and  also  does  it  much  more  quickly.  The  chil- 
dren enjoy  them;  at  least  mine  do.  Instead  of  dreading  an 
"examination"  as  they  used  to  do,  they  are  simply  overjoyed 
at  the  prospect  of  taking  a  "test." 

A  teacher  cannot,  by  means  of  ordinary  examinations,  know 
how  her  pupils  compare  with  other  children  of  the  same  age 
and  grade  in  other  schools,  but  by  using  the  standard  tests 
she  can  determine  their  relative  standing  and  whether  they 
need  extra  time  devoted  to  certain  subjects. 

Of  course  they  make  extra  work  for  the  teacher,  but  if  she 


134  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

has  the  welfare  of  her  pupils  at  heart  (as  every  teacher  should 
have)  she  will  not  mind  extra  work. 

I  have  been  a  teacher  for  twenty-nine  years  and  never  heard 
of  the  tests  until  two  years  ago,  since  which  time  I  have  been 
using  them  under  the  direction  of  Superintendent  Brooks.  I 
should  not  care  to  teach  again  without  them. 

G.  E.  S. 

This  last  tribute  to  the  efficiency  of  standardized  tests 
comes  from  a  teacher  who  has  just  finished  her  twenty- 
ninth  year  as  teacher  in  the  same  little  rural  school.  Up 
to  two  years  ago  her  own  education  was  limited  to  the 
eight  grades  of  the  very  school  she  has  been  teaching  so 
long  in  her  home  district.  She  attended  the  summer  ses- 
sion of  a  normal  school  last  summer  and  is  planning  to  go 
again  this  summer. 

When  I  asked  the  teachers  to  write  their  opinions  of 
standardized  tests,  I  also  asked  them  to  have  all  the 
children  above  the  fourth  grade  write  what  they  thought 
of  the  tests.  Below  are  a  number  of  the  papers  submitted 
by  the  children.  With  the  exception  of  corrections  in 
spelling  they  are  submitted  just  as  the  children  wrote  them, 
with  no  attempt  to  smooth  over  the  crudities. 

These  are  not  selected  papers  chosen  for  effect.  They 
were  picked  out  from  the  nearly  two  hundred  papers  re- 
ceived in  such  a  way  that  each  school  would  be  repre- 
sented by  two  papers.  The  papers  from  each  school  were 
thoroughly  shuffled  and  then  the  third  and  seventh  papers 
from  the  top  of  each  pile  were  taken  for  publication. 

What  the  Pupils  Think  of  the  Tests 

The  tests  help  us  to  learn.  I  think  I  have  improved  since  the 
last  test.  I  was  below  grade  by  the  tests  the  first  time,  but 
came  up  this  time.  They  tell  me  I  must  work  hard  on  the 
fundamentals  of  arithmetic  and  spelling  and  reading.     I  am 


REACTION  OF  TEACHERS  AND  PUPILS     135 

going  to  try  to  go  up  again  next  time.     I  like  the  tests  very 
much. 

E.  E.  W. 

I  think  the  tests  have  helped  me  in  many  ways.  They  have 
helped  me  to  work  both  faster  and  better,  and  I  have  more 
interest  in  getting  ahead  in  my  studies.  I  like  all  the  tests, 
but  I  Uke  the  arithmetic  tests  best. 

L.  M.  D. 

I  like  the  tests  very  much  and  I  know  that  they  help  me  in 
many  ways.  The  arithmetic  tests  are  very  nice  and  I  improved 
a  lot  in  them.  I  was  sorry  to  find  that  I  did  not  come  up  to  my 
grade  in  addition  and  division  on  the  last  test,  but  I  am  going 
to  see  that  I  come  up  to  grade  in  them  next  time.  I  was  glad 
to  see  that  I  did  much  better  with  the  tests  this  time  than  I  did 
the  last  time. 

D.  L. 

I  like  the  tests  because  I  think  they  help  me  to  do  better 
work.  The  first  time  I  took  the  tests  I  ranked  way  below  my 
grade,  but  the  second  time  I  came  up  nearly  to  where  I  be- 
longed. The  last  time  I  found  I  was  behind  in  the  reasoning 
test  and  the  language  tests. 

T.  V. 

The  tests  we  have  had  have  helped  me  very  much,  especially 
the  arithmetic  tests  because  there  were  so  many  difTerent  kinds 
of  examples.  I  did  not  come  up  much  in  the  reasoning  tests, 
but  I  am  going  to  work  hard  and  get  a  better  graph  next  time. 
The  Hahn-Lackey  Geography  Scale  helped  me  greatly.  I  like 
to  study  it.  Then  when  I  study  in  my  books  I  can  pick  out 
the  important  things  better. 

G.  H.  M. 

I  improved  on  the  tests  very  much.  I  like  the  tests.  The 
first  time  I  had  them  I  measured  below  my  grade,  but  the 


136  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

second  time  I  had  them  I  did  very  much  better.  I  had  to 
work  very  hard  on  multiplication  and  spelling.  I  was  very 
pleased  when  I  saw  my  last  graph  card. 

A.  W. 

I  think  the  tests  are  a  great  help  to  us.  They  teach  us  to 
work  quickly  and  correctly.  They  show  us  what  we  need  the 
most.  On  my  graph  in  some  things  I  was  below  my  grade  so 
those  are  the  things  I  have  got  to  study  up  on.  I  was  below  my 
grade  in  writing.  I  had  to  work  mostly  on  Geography  and 
History. 

V.  M. 

I  have  done  better  in  all  my  lessons  since  we  have  been  hav- 
ing the  tests  and  I  think  they  are  very  nice.  Since  we  have 
been  having  the  tests  if  one  was  in  the  third  grade  and  belonged 
in  the  fourth  he  is  put  where  he  belongs  and  I  think  that  is 
right.  I  like  the  arithmetic  tests  best,  but  I  like  the  rest  of 
them  too.  I  am  always  glad  when  it  is  time  to  begin  our  tests 
and  am  sorry  when  we  have  no  more.  I  was  weak  on  some 
things  and  now  I  know  what  they  are  and  am  going  to  work  up 
on  them. 

R.  L. 

I  for  one  in  this  school  do  not  like  the  standardized  tests. 
It  is  true  that  in  some  ways  they  help  us,  but  in  some  ways  they 
do  not.  They  help  us  to  work  quickly,  but  how  about  accu- 
racy? We  do  not  have  time  to  think,  and  put  down  things  that 
after  we  do  think  we  know  are  not  right.  Some  of  the  tests 
that  help  me  are  Reading  and  Grammar,  but  Arithmetic  I  hate 
and  always  shall.  I  think  the  standardized  tests  are  more 
beneficial  to  the  younger  scholars  than  to  the  older  ones.  I 
hope  they  will  stop  having  those  tests  as  they  get  on  my  nerves. 

F.  M. 

I  think  that  the  standardized  tests  are  a  great  help  to  us. 
We  can  tell  by  looking  at  the  graph  card  what  grade  we  are  in 


REACTION  OF  TEACHERS  AND  PUPILS     137 

and  whether  we  are  in  the  grade  that  we  should  be  in.  They 
help  us,  for  we  compare  our  graph  cards  with  those  of  our 
classmates.  When  we  are  given  standardized  tests  we  know 
that  we  are  rated  fairly.  A.  H. 

The  tests  help  us  to  compare  our  work  with  our  classmates, 
with  other  classes,  and  also  with  other  schools.  When  we  get 
our  ranks  from  the  graph  cards  we  know  what  studies  we  need 
to  study  more.     We  also  know  that  we  are  being  rated  fairly. 

W.  A. 

I  think  the  tests  are  very  good  for  us.  They  tell  exactly 
where  one  belongs,  and  one  don't  get  put  above  his  grade  or 
below.  It  helps  the  teacher  too,  for  they  do  not  rank  us  by 
guess.  The  mixed  fundamentals  are  good  because  they  show 
us  whether  we  can  do  arithmetic  all  mixed  up  or  not.  But  best 
of  all  I  like  the  standardized  tests  in  Geography,  especially 
those  upon  states  and  cities.  I  do  not  like  the  spelling  test  at 
all.  It  is  more  like  dictation  work  to  me.  I  hope  I  make  my 
grade  by  these  tests  this  year.  The  standardized  tests  are 
surely  a  help  and  I  hope  we  will  have  them  all  the  time. 

R.  K.  L. 

I  think  the  standardized  tests  are  the  best  kind  to  have. 
They  tell  us  where  we  pupils  belong  and  what  we  have  to  work 
up  on.  They  tell  us  what  we  are  weak  in.  They  can't  push 
us  ahead  if  we  don't  belong  there.  The  Mixed  Fundamentals 
are  exactly  what  we  need.  I  like  them  very  much.  I  don't 
know  of  anything  better  that  we  could  have.  They  tell  us 
what  grade  we  belong  in.  I  have  done  much  better  with  them 
than  I  did  last  year.  H.  A.  D. 

1  like  the  standardized  tests.  I  think  they  are  just  what  we 
need.  I  hke  the  arithmetic  best.  The  tests  put  us  where  we 
belong.  I  like  the  tests  better  this  year  than  I  did  last  year. 
I  think  I  did  better  in  the  tests  than  I  did  last  year  too. 

J.  F. 


138  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

I  think  the  tests  are  very  fair.  Some  of  them  are  just  what 
I  Hke  and  some  of  them  are  not.  The  Mixed  Fundamentals 
I  do  not  Hke.  I  did  not  have  them  when  I  first  began  to  come 
to  school.    I  like  them  better  than  the  old  tests. 

S.  F.  L. 

I  like  the  tests  very  much.  I  think  they  are  fair,  too. 
I  like  to  take  the  Geography  tests  better  than  the  others,  but 
I  think  I  will  like  the  others  after  I  know  more  about  their 
subjects.  I  don't  like  the  Mixed  Fundamentals.  I  found  I  was 
below  my  grade  in  long  columns  of  addition.  I  like  the  gram- 
mar tests,  but  not  quite  so  well  as  the  others.  I  hope  I  will  get 
my  grade  in  everything  next  term  by  the  tests.  They  are  very 
interesting  and  I  hope  we  will  have  them  always  because  any- 
body can  tell  just  where  she  is.  It  gives  us  more  courage  to  do 
our  work  well. 

M.  L. 

I  think  the  standardized  tests  are  very  interesting  and  also 
think  they  are  the  fairest  of  any  tests  I  ever  took.  I  enjoy 
them  very  much  and  hope  they  will  continue  to  use  them. 
They  tell  exactly  where  a  child  belongs.  I  don't  like  the  Mixed 
Fundamentals  very  well.  I  found  when  I  took  the  tests  I  fell 
down  in  long  division.  I  hope  that  I  get  my  grade  next  June 
so  that  I  can  be  promoted. 

E.  G. 

The  tests  are  valuable  to  me  because  I  compare  my  graph 
card  with  my  classmates  and  if  I  am  behind  in  anything  I  try 
to  study  harder  to  keep  up.  One  class  may  be  behind  the  other. 
They  try  to  keep  up  with  other  classes  that  are  ahead  of  them. 
It  helps  us  to  keep  up  with  other  schools  because  they  can  com- 
pare our  school  with  others.  And  we  know  we  are  rated  as  we 
should  be  by  standardized  tests.  L.  D. 

I  think  that  the  graph  card  which  is  a  record  of  the  result 
of  Standard  Tests,  is  a  very  good  idea.     I  can  compare  my 


REACTION  OF  TEACHERS  AND  PUPILS     139 

graph  card  with  that  of  my  classmate.  By  looking  at  my  card 
I  can  tell  what  studies  I  am  below  my  grade  in,  and  so  know 
what  subjects  I  need  to  study  most.  E.  G.  H. 

The  graph  cards  which  tell  the  results  of  the  tests  are  a  great 
help  to  the  pupils  because  we  can  compare  our  marks  with 
those  of  our  classmates  and  it  tells  us  whether  we  did  as  well 
as  our  classmates  or  better,  and  how  much.  It  also  tells  us 
in  what  studies  we  went  below  grade  so  we  know  what  to  study 
harder.  It  helps  the  teacher  because  they  can  find  out  what 
to  let  us  put  more  time  on.  It  helps  the  superintendent 
because  he  can  compare  our  school  with  another.  It  helps 
the  public  because  they  can  tell  what  the  schools  are  doing. 
We  know  when  we  take  the  Standard  Tests  we  will  get  fair  play. 

E.  M.  G. 

I  think  the  standardized  tests  are  a  good  thing.  They  show 
you  where  you  stand  in  your  studies  and  whether  you  are 
keeping  up  in  your  grade  or  not.  They  help  you  to  work  with 
greater  speed  and  accuracy.  They  are  of  benefit  to  you  because 
they  show  how  much  you  can  get  out  of  a  lesson.  They  show 
you  that,  if  you  can't  keep  up  with  your  grade,  you  can  fall 
back  into  a  lower  grade.  They  also  show  you  whether  you  are 
far  enough  advanced  to  be  put  in  a  higher  grade. 

I.  M. 

I  think  the  tests  are  a  great  help  to  me  and  some  special  ones 
like  addition,  subtraction,  and  Mixed  Fundamentals  have 
made  me  quicker  in  my  work.  I  like  to  do  them.  They  help 
me  in  my  everyday  work.  I  can  add  and  subtract  quicker.  If 
it  was  n't  for  them  I  would  n't  know  whether  I  passed  my  grade 
or  not.  I  would  like  to  have  them  every  day.  I  think  it  is  fun 
to  do  the  tests. 

A.  H.  M. 

The  tests  the  teacher  gives  us  are  very  easy.  We  are  allowed 
five,  ten,  and  sometimes  twenty-five  minutes.    The  tests  I  like 


I40  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

best  are  reading  and  History.  I  do  not  like  arithmetic  as  I 
cannot  remember  my  tables.  The  tests  are  a  very  good  thing 
for  every  girl  and  boy  in  school,  as  they  show  them  if  they  are 
above  or  below  their  grade.  I  do  not  sympathize  with  the 
school  children  or  teachers,  as  I  hate  going  to  school.  I  can 
learn  more  by  reading  library  books  and  going  to  places. 

E.  M. 

During  the  past  two  years,  since  we  have  had  a  superintend- 
ent, we  have  had  standardized  tests  which  I  have  enjoyed  very 
much,  especially  the  Courtis  Geography  tests,  although  I 
should  like  to  have  them  more  often.  They  are  all  very  help- 
ful. The  Courtis  Standard  Practice  Pads  that  we  have  every 
morning  help  to  develop  speed  as  well  as  accuracy.  I  am  espe- 
cially interested  to  note  the  progress  on  my  graph  card. 

J.  L.  C. 

I  think  all  the  tests  are  very  interesting  and  helpful.  We 
shall  be  glad  when  the  tests  come  again  in  June.  Then  we  can 
see  if  we  are  going  to  be  promoted.  M.  R.  D. 

I  did  not  enter  this  school  until  late  last  fall  because  my 
parents  just  moved  here  from  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  All 
of  the  other  children  had  been  given  the  standardized  tests 
before  I  entered,  so  the  teacher  gave  them  to  me  to  determine 
what  grade  I  should  be  in.  When  I  got  my  graph  card  back 
it  showed  just  where  I  belonged.  These  tests  help  me  to  think 
more  quickly  and  I  can  see  that  they  have  been  a  great  help 
in  many  ways.  We  have  the  Courtis  Arithmetic  Practice  Pads 
every  morning.  All  the  children  seem  to  be  very  interested  in 
the  tests  and  their  results  as  recorded  on  the  graph  cards. 

P.  N.  G. 

We  have  only  had  standardized  tests  in  our  schools  for  two 
years.  When  our  superintendent  first  brought  these  tests  to 
us  we  were  not  very  much  interested,  but  since  our  teacher  has 
explained  the  results  on  our  graphs  we  have  become  very  much 


REACTION  OF  TEACHERS  AND  PUPILS     141 

interested  indeed.  The  tests  that  I  enjoy  most  are  the  Stu- 
dent's Record  and  Practice  Pad  by  Stuart  A.  Courtis,  the 
Fundamentals  of  arithmetic  by  Clifford  Woody,  and  the  Silent 
Reading  tests  by  Walter  S.  Monroe.  I  would  like  to  have  these 
tests  more  often  than  three  times  a  year. 

H.  L.  A. 

I  like  all  the  tests  that  we  have  had  only  I  would  like  to  have 
them  more  often  than  we  do.  Of  all  the  tests  I  think  I  like 
the  Courtis  Silent  Reading  Test  the  best.  We  think  that  it  is 
great  fun  and  would  like  to  have  them  every  day  if  we  could. 
The  Courtis  Practice  Pads  that  we  have  every  morning  have 
helped  me  more  than  any  other.  Can't  we  have  some  more 
tests  that  can  be  given  every  day?  W.  F.  G. 

The  standardized  tests  have  helped  me  in  various  ways,  to 
think  quickly  and  to  read  rapidly  and  silently  and  yet  get 
the  meaning  of  what  I  have  read.  They  tell  exactly  what  I  am 
expected  to  do  and  in  that  way  help  me  not  to  be  careless, 
because  if  I  look  at  the  top  of  the  paper  and  what  it  says  there 
I  know  what  to  do.  If  I  did  n't  look  I  would  do  something 
wrong.  For  example,  if  it  said  to  subtract  and  I  did  n't  pay 
any  attention  to  it  and  multiplied,  I  would  get  the  example 
wrong.  The  tests  seem  to  me  something  like  a  game;  trying 
to  do  something  in  so  many  seconds  or  minutes  and  get  it 
correct.  I  do  not  mind  them  as  much  as  tests  which  the 
teacher  makes  up  and  gives  me  because  it  seems  as  though  she 
takes  the  very  hardest  things  she  can  for  me  to  do  and  gives 
the  others  something  much  easier.  B  ut  with  the  standard  tests 
there  are  just  as  hard  things  for  one  to  do  in  my  grade  as 
another.  E.  G. 

I  like  the  tests  very  much.  I  like  the  spelling  and  reading 
tests  best  of  all.  I  am  always  glad  when  the  tests  come  round. 
I  think  the  tests  are  very  nice  and  helpful.  I  enjoy  them  very 
much.    I  try  to  improve  each  time  we  have  them. 

E.  J.  D. 


142  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

I  like  the  tests  and  am  always  glad  when  they  come  round. 
I  think  it  is  hard  to  change  over  to  the  new  way  of  writing, 
but  I  am  trying  to  do  it.  I  hope  I  shall  do  better  in  my  next 
test.  I  like  the  arithmetic  tests  best  and  the  English  tests  the 
least  of  any.     I  think  they  are  all  very  helpful.       M.  I.  S. 

I  am  always  glad  when  we  have  the  tests.  I  try  to  do  better 
every  time  they  come  round.  I  like  them  very  much.  I  like 
the  arithmetic  the  best.  I  think  the  tests  are  a  very  nice  thing 
and  I  think  they  help  us  a  lot.  I  hope  we  have  some  more 
very  soon.  E.  M.  S. 

The  above  papers  are,  I  think,  fairly  representative  of 
the  opinions  of  the  school  children  of  this  district  in  regard 
to  standardized  tests.  Is  there  not  a  convincing  sermon 
here  for  the  educator  who  is  not  too  much  addicted  to 
spinning  beautiful  theories  out  of  his  head  to  be  a  student 
of  child  nature?  Is  there  not  a  lesson  for  teachers  and 
superintendents  who  are  willing  to  seek  the  child's  point  of 
view  in  order  to  make  the  teaching  process  more  efficient 
by  taking  advantage  of  his  likes  and  dislikes? 

At  any  rate,  the  papers  show  that  the  children  have 
grasped  and  appreciated  the  principal  advantages  that  the 
use  of  standardized  tests  has  for  them.  To  sum  up,  they 
appreciate  them  as  interesting,  as  motivating,  as  eminently 
fair,  as  setting  up  definite  standards  of  achievement  to 
work  for,  and  as  giving  them  a  means  of  comparing  their 
work  with  that  of  their  classmates. 

The  record  of  the  progress  of  pupils  as  measured  by 
standardized  tests  and  recorded  on  the  graph  cards,  to- 
gether with  the  testimony  of  teachers  and  pupils  as  above 
set  forth,  seems  to  me  to  be  conclusive  evidence  that  the 
use  of  standardized  tests  is  tremendously  worth  while  in 
rural  schools  or  in  any  other  school  for  which  they  are 
available. 


CHAPTER  XI 

READING  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

Modification  of  Methods  and  Materials  is  Part  of  a 
Testing  Program 

Although  standardized  tests  may  be  ever  so  useful  in 
discovering  the  performance  of  pupils  relative  to  grade 
norms,  in  helping  to  decide  when  pupils  are  ready  for  pro- 
motion, in  determining  the  efficiency  of  teachers,  and  so 
on,  nevertheless  the  benefits  of  a  systematized  testing 
program  cannot  be  fully  realized  unless  a  careful  study  of 
results  leads  to  the  modification  of  the  methods  and  mate- 
rials of  instruction  in  such  a  way  as  to  improve  the  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  classroom  products.  The  carrying-out 
of  such  modifications  and  the  retesting  to  measure  their 
effectiveness  is  as  much  a  part  of  an  intelligent  testing 
program  as  is  the  measuring  of  progress  or  testing  for 
diagnostic  purposes.  Indeed,  what  is  the  use  of  diagnosis 
without  follow-up  treatment?  For  a  physician  to  say 
that  a  patient  has  pneumonia  is  of  little  consequence  unless 
he  administers  the  proper  treatment.  And  what  would 
be  the  value  of  medical  records  of  cases  if  the  records 
did  not  contain  descriptions  of  the  procedures  following 
diagnoses  and  of  the  results  of  such  procedures? 

It  may  seem  at  first  thought  that  the  topic  "  Reading 
Aims  and  Methods  "  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  book. 
But  the  reading  methods  and  materials  now  in  use  in  this 
district  are  so  directly  the  outgrowth  of  efforts  to  remedy 
the  conditions  revealed  by  tests  of  silent-reading  ability, 
and  so  essential  do  some  such  methods  and  materials 
appear  to  be  in  developing  silent-reading  ability  as  meas- 
ured by  the  tests,  that  I  believe  a  detailed  discussion  of 


144  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

them  should  be  included  in  the  exposition  of  any  scheme 
for  getting  the  utmost  practical  benefits  from  the  syste- 
matic periodical  use  of  standardized  tests. 

Drill  in  Oral  Reading  does  not  Ensure  Silent- 
Reading  Ability 

A  DISCUSSION  of  the  conditions  disclosed  by  the  first  tests 
is  given  in  a  previous  chapter.  The  low  level  of  reading 
efficiency  revealed  throughout  the  district  by  the  results  of 
these  first  tests  was  conclusive  proof  that  the  customary 
oral-reading  drill  was  not  developing  the  sort  of  reading 
ability  that  the  tests  measure.  Yet  the  tests  measure  the 
kind  of  reading  ability  that  it  is  most  important  for  the 
pupils  to  acquire,  namely,  the  ability  to  gather  ideas 
silently,  rapidly,  and  accurately  from  the  printed  page. 
Teachers,  however,  habitually  try  to  develop  reading 
ability  through  practice  in  word-pronouncing,  supple- 
mented sometimes  by  more  or  less  efficient  drill  in  enuncia- 
tion, articulation,  and  proper  expression.  By  the  end  of 
the  eighth  or  ninth  grade,  most  pupils  have  learned  to 
recognize  and  pronounce  a  sufficiently  large  number  of 
words  to  enable  them  to  give  at  least  a  phonograph-like 
rendering  of  untechnical  printed  matter  —  minus  in  most 
cases  the  intelligent  expression  which  a  phonograph  re- 
produces so  perfectly.  Since  the  chief  measure  of  reading 
efficiency  is  the  teacher's  judgment  of  proper  expression 
and  pronunciation  regardless  of  whether  or  not  the  words 
and  sentences  read  mean  anything  to  the  reader,  this  oral 
evidence  of  the  ability  to  translate  printed  symbols  into 
the  sounds  which  they  represent  is  misconstrued  into  evi- 
dence of  real  reading  ability.  Indeed,  when  we  measure 
oral-reading  ability  —  as  we  do  by  means  of  Gray's  test  — 
we  estimate  the  performance  of  the  pupil  solely  on  the 
basis  of  the  way  he  pronounces  the  words. 


READING  AIMS  AND  METHODS  145 

This  may  account  for  the  fact  that  so  many  pupils  with 
fair  oral-reading  ability  can  do  little  more  with  the  content 
subjects  than  to  give  parrot-like  repetitions  of  facts 
memorized  from  the  texts.  We  ask  teachers  to  assign 
project-problem  work  to  the  upper  grades  in  geography, 
history,  and  science.  They  reply  that  most  pupils,  even 
when  they  have  full  instructions  and  outlines  to  work  by, 
are  helpless  in  carrying  on  anything  like  independent 
study,  and  that  rote  memory  work  seems  to  be  the  limit 
of  their  achievement  in  these  subjects.  If  this  is  a  true 
statement  of  the  case,  we  are  rightly  led  to  inquire  whose 
fault  it  is  that  upper-grade  children  cannot  read  with 
understanding. 

To  be  sure,  some  of  the  more  intelligent  pupils  really 
learn  to  read,  not  because  of  proper  drill  and  instruction, 
but  because  of  superior  native  ability.  Such  pupils  are 
actuated  by  the  necessity  of  reading  for  comprehension  in 
learning  their  geography  and  history  lessons,  and  by  their 
love  of  books  in  general.  They  do  much  silent  reading 
outside  of  school.  In  other  words,  they  learn  to  read 
mostly  through  self-imposed  practice  in  silent  reading. 
Accordingly,  since  some  pupils  in  time  learn  to  read  in 
spite  of  poor  teaching  methods,  and  since  most  pupils 
learn  how  to  pronounce  a  few  hundred  common  words,  a 
false  idea  of  the  efficiency  of  oral-reading  drill  has  long 
persisted  —  an  idea  fostered  by  wrong  aims  in  teaching 
and  a  lack  of  intelligent  method  in  measuring  results. 

The  Way  to  Improve  Silent  Reading  is  to  Teach 
Silent  Reading 

Lately,  however,  the  revolutionary  idea  has  occurred  to 
some  people  that  the  most  efficient  way  to  teach  reading 
is  by  actual  class  drill  in  reading  and  not  by  practice  in 
speaking  as  heretofore.     Strange,  is  n't  it,  how  long  it  has 


146  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

taken  even  a  few  school  people  to  reach  such  an  obviously 
sensible  conclusion?  Yet  music  teachers  have  always 
known  that  piano  playing  could  be  taught  much  more 
effectively  through  actual  piano  practice  under  instruction 
than  by  means  of  singing  lessons.  Moreover,  one  does 
not  teach  children  to  swim  by  giving  them  skating  lessons. 

After  considering  all  the  reasons  we  could  think  of  for 
the  almost  universally  poor  reading  ability  revealed  by  the 
scores  in  silent-reading  tests,  we  decided  that  the  chief 
reason  was  that  the  pupils  had  never  been  drilled  in  that 
kind  of  reading.  Oral-reading  drill,  and  that  very  poorly 
conducted  as  a  rule,  was  the  only  kind  of  reading  drill  they 
had  ever  known.  It  had,  of  course,  failed  to  develop  the 
type  of  ability  measured  by  the  standardized  tests.  Other 
contributing  factors  were  lack  of  vocabulary  knowledge, 
as  revealed  by  the  visual  vocabulary  tests,  and  bad  habits 
of  silent  reading,  such  as  lip  movements,  which  prevent 
the  attainment  of  speed. 

Oral-reading  drill  does  not  ensure  the  development  of 
silent-reading  ability  because  the  mental  processes  in- 
volved, and  hence  the  brain  centers  brought  into  play,  are 
very  different  in  the  two  kinds  of  reading.  It  is  a  good 
deal  like  trying  to  develop  the  muscles  of  the  arms  through 
exercising  the  legs.  Furthermore,  oral-reading  drill  does 
not,  as  has  been  shown,  ensure  the  pupil's  understanding 
of  what  he  reads.  A  pupil  may  be  able  to  pronounce  the 
words  of  a  passage  perfectly;  he  may  also,  through  a 
mechanical  minding  of  punctuation,  convey  the  author's 
thoughts  to  the  hearer  without  himself  comprehending 
them  at  all.  Yet  comprehension  is  one  of  the  two  main 
factors  of  efficiency  in  silent  reading. 

The  ability  to  recognize  and  pronounce  words  and 
phrases  is  no  true  evidence  that  their  meaning  is  under- 
stood.   A  phonograph  can  reproduce  perfectly  the  words 


READING  AIMS  AND  METHODS         147 

that  are  spoken  into  it,  but  surely  nobody  would  argue 
from  this  circumstance  that  the  words  have  any  meaning 
to  the  machine.  Just  so  can  the  child  repeat  words  which 
have  been  pronounced  for  him  by  the  teacher  without 
having  much  conception  of  the  ideas  which  the  words 
represent.  He  can  become  so  familiar  with  their  visual 
forms  as  to  recognize  them  instantly  on  the  printed  page 
and  pronounce  them  in  consecutive  order  so  that  they  can 
be  understood  by  others,  and  still  they  may  have  almost 
no  meaning  to  him.  This  point  will  be  clear  to  any  one 
who  has  acquired  during  his  high-school  days  a  reading 
knowledge  of  a  foreign  language,  and  who  has  given  it  no 
thought  for  several  years  until  his  vocabulary  has  so  nearly 
faded  from  memory  that  in  scanning  a  printed  page  of  the 
language  he  can  find  only  here  and  there  a  word  that  means 
any  more  to  him  than  a  jumble  of  letters  and  sounds. 
Yet  he  can  pronounce  most  of  the  words  as  well  as  he  ever 
could  and  can  probably  read  the  whole  page  orally,  al- 
though with  poor  expression  due  to  his  inability  to  grasp 
the  thought.  There  is  a  rather  close  analogy  between 
such  reading  by  an  adult  and  the  hesitating,  expressionless 
oral  reading  of  a  child  who  does  n't  grasp  the  meaning  of 
what  he  is  reading. 

We  must  remember  that  words  have  no  meaning  in 
themselves.  They  are  merely  the  visual  symbols  of  ideas 
more  or  less  common  to  the  experience  of  the  race.  Until 
the  learner  makes  these  ideas  his  own  through  experience 
either  direct  or  indirect,  and  connects  them  permanently 
in  his  mind  with  their  visual  symbols,  the  words  can  have 
no  meaning  for  him,  though  he  may  be  able  to  recognize 
them  at  sight  and  give  correctly  the  corresponding  vocal 
forms.  So  I  repeat  that  skill  in  word-pronouncing  is  not 
conclusive  evidence  of  reading  ability,  if  we  define  reading 
ability  as  the  ability  to  gather  ideas  from  the  printed  page. 


148  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Oral-Reading  Drill  Hinders  Good  Reading 

Furthermore,  oral-reading  drill  acts  in  at  least  two  ways 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  proper  reading  habits.  Per- 
haps it  would  be  better  to  say  that  it  tends  to  the  forma- 
tion of  improper  reading  habits. 

In  the  first  place,  the  fact  that  the  pupil  when  reading 
aloud  must  concentrate  his  attention  on  punctuation, 
enunciation,  articulation,  and  expression,  precludes  the 
possibility  of  his  gathering  much  meaning  from  what  he 
reads.  His  mind  is  too  much  occupied  with  the  mechanics 
of  oral  reading.  If  the  reader  is  skeptical  as  regards  this 
point,  he  might  profit  from  a  little  experiment.  Let  him 
read  aloud  to  some  one,  a  page  from  Dewey's  Democracy 
and  Education,  remembering  that  he  is  reading  to  an  audi- 
ence and  that  he  must  give  as  much  expression  to  his  read- 
ing as  possible  so  that  the  audience  may  get  the  author's 
meaning.  Then  let  him  close  the  book  and  see  how  much 
he  can  tell  of  what  he  has  read.  After  trying  it,  the  dis- 
comfited experimenter  may  object  that  the  text  is  too 
difficult  for  a  fair  test.  But  is  Dewey's  masterpiece  any 
more  difficult  for  the  educated,  intelligent  adult  than  the 
ordinary  school  text  is  for  the  learner?  Besides,  the 
learner  may  be  still  further  handicapped  in  getting  the 
thought  by  childish  self-consciousness  and  the  constant 
expectation  of  being  interrupted,  corrected,  and  criticized 
by  the  teacher  or  his  classmates.  Have  you  ever  consid- 
ered how  harmful  to  the  thought-getting  process  must  be 
those  constant  interruptions  accompanied  by  wildly  wav- 
ing arms  and  hands  where  the  reader  is  told  that  he  can 
read  until  he  makes  a  mistake  and  the  class  is  told  to 
watch  for  his  mistakes?  In  oral-reading  drill  of  this  sort 
the  habit  is  forced  upon  the  pupil  of  paying  more  atten- 
tion to  forms  of  words  than  to  their  meanings.    In  silent 


READING  AIMS  AND  METHODS  149 

reading,  however,  this  habit  cannot  but  be  a  hindrance  to 
him. 

In  the  second  place,  in  oral  reading  every  word  has  to  be 
pronounced,  a  procedure  that  in  silent  reading  is  not  only 
unnecessary  but  positively  harmful.  It  absolutely  pre- 
cludes the  possibility  of  attaining  a  normal  rate  of  speed. 
A  good  reader  can  read  from  two  to  four  times  as  fast 
silently  as  he  can  orally  because  in  reading  silently  he 
does  n't  have  to  pronounce  words  or  even  to  consider 
single  words.  He  grasps  whole  thoughts  at  a  glance. 
But  the  per  cent  of  such  readers  in  the  elementary  schools 
is  small.  One  may  obtain  ample  proof  that  such  is  the 
case  by  going  into  any  schoolroom  during  a  study  period 
in  history,  and  noting  the  pupils  who  are  not  visibly  pro- 
nouncing every  word  as  they  read  over  their  lessons 
silently.  True,  most  normal  adults  and  some  of  the 
brighter  children  in  the  grades  who  read  much  do  not  move 
their  lips  in  silent  reading.  But  it  is  the  fact  that  such 
persons  read  much  that  really  accounts  for  their  efficiency. 
This  fact  also  shows  that  silent-reading  ability  can  be 
developed  by  practice  in  silent  reading.  In  other  words, 
those  who  exhibit  this  ability  have  acquired  it  through  much 
self-imposed  silent  reading  rather  than  through  school  in- 
struction in  oral  reading.  And  most  of  them  learn  to 
read  too  late  to  be  of  help  to  them  in  their  school  work. 
Beyond  the  third  or  fourth  grade  boys  and  girls  need  to 
use  reading  as  a  tool  with  which  to  acquire  the  information 
contained  in  books.  Hence  the  recent  movement  to  de- 
velop efficient  silent  readers  during  the  first  three  or  four 
years  of  school  life. 

A  slow  reader,  then,  is  not  an  efficient  reader  and  oral- 
reading  drill  tends  to  make  slow  readers  by  forming  the 
habit  of  lip  movement  in  word-pronouncing.  I  use  the 
term  "  oral  reading  "  not  because  it  is  appropriate,  but 


I50  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

because  it  is  the  common  designation  applied  to  the  type 
of  drill  in  vogue  during  the  "  reading  "  period  in  most 
schools.  Of  course  so-called  "  oral  reading  "  is  not  really 
reading  at  all.  It  is  word-pronouncing.  Word-pronounc- 
ing is  speaking;  and  speaking  and  reading  are  by  no  means 
synonymous  terms.  Their  dictionary  definitions  bring 
out  the  distinction.  Reading  is  defined  as  "  the  going  over 
words  or  characters  with  comprehension  of  their  meaning." 
Speaking  is  defined  as  "  the  utterance  of  articulate  words 
or  sounds." 

The  Case  against  Oral  Reading 

Accordingly,  because  it  furnishes  practice  in  speaking 
rather  than  in  reading,  I  am  trying  to  make  out  a  case 
against  "  oral  reading  "  as  the  sole  or  even  the  chief  means 
of  developing  reading  ability  in  school  children.  I  am  not 
condemning  oral-reading  drill  in  general  as  a  useless  and 
pernicious  practice.  Not  by  any  means,  even  though,  as  I 
have  shown,  too  much  of  it  tends  to  prevent  the  formation 
of  good  reading  habits.  But  I  do  say  that  oral-reading 
drill  as  often,  if  not  as  ordinarily,  conducted  is  worse  than 
useless  as  far  as  developing  real  reading  ability  is  con- 
cerned. It  is  a  criminal  waste  of  the  child's  time  and 
opportunities  and  a  disgrace  to  those  who  practice  it  while 
professing  a  knowledge  of  the  art  of  teaching. 

We  recognize  the  picture.  A  class  of  pupils  is  taking 
turns  reading  aloud  from  a  book  of  which  every  one  has  a 
copy.  The  "  lesson  "  has  probably  been  read  over  and 
over  by  most  of  the  pupils  at  their  seats  until  there  is 
nothing  new  in  it  to  keep  alive  a  vital  interest  during  the 
class  period.  One  after  another  each  rises  and  drones  out 
a  paragraph  or  two,  interrupted  occasionally  by  corrections 
of  too  glaring  errors  from  a  yawning  teacher  or  from  class- 
mates not  so  busily  engaged  in  mischief  or  day-dreaming 


READING  AIMS  AND  METHODS  151 

as  to  be  entirely  oblivious  of  their  surroundings.  I  have 
seen  teachers  correct  papers,  write  letters,  or  put  work  on 
the  board  for  another  class  while  conducting  (?)  a  class  in 
what  they  termed  "  reading."  The  pupils  each  pro- 
nounced a  paragraph,  doing  so  in  regular  turns  so  that  the 
teacher  would  not  have  to  give  her  attention  to  stopping 
one  pupil  and  starting  another.  Corrections  and  assist- 
ance in  saying  the  words  were  left  to  supposedly  alert 
classmates.  In  reality  most  errors  went  uncorrected  and 
the  reader  skipped  or  stumbled  over  such  words  as  he  did 
not  know  how  to  pronounce.  If  things  came  to  a  complete 
standstill,  the  teacher  would  give  her  attention  long  enough 
to  start  them  going  again.  All  this  in  the  name  of  educa- 
tion, with  the  public's  money  going  to  pay  for  it!  Shall 
we  ever  have  enough  teachers,  real  teachers,  to  do  real 
teaching  in  all  our  schools?  It  is  such  handling  of  "  oral- 
reading  "  drill  that  I  condemn  and  the  practice  docs  not 
need  to  be  nearly  as  bad  as  described  in  order  to  be  not 
only  useless  but  positively  harmful. 

Yet  Oral  Reading  has  its  Value 

However,  properly  handled  drill  in  the  oral  reproduction 
of  printed  words  and  sentences  can  be  made  worth  while 
to  the  pupils.  If  the  printed  selections  are  used  as  mate- 
rial for  intensive  drill  in  pronunciation,  articulation,  and 
enunciation,  then  such  drill  has  its  proper  place  in  develop- 
ing proper  habits  of  speech.  Used  in  this  way,  it  supple- 
ments (and  should  probably  form  a  part  of)  the  oral- 
composition  phase  of  language  work.  But  it  is  not  read- 
ing, and  should  not  be  permitted  to  replace  real  reading 
drill  or  to  encroach  upon  the  time  that  should  be  devoted 
to  real  reading  drill.  Let  us  find  a  suitable  name  for  it  and 
give  it  a  place  in  the  program  all  its  own  if  we  cannot  feel 
convinced  that  it  is  a  part  of  the  regular  language  work. 


152  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Of  course  there  are,  especially  in  cities  and  large  towns, 
many  schools  with  highly  trained  teachers  where  oral- 
reading  drill  is  by  no  means  so  tragically  inefficient  as  in 
the  method  described  above.  Such  inefficiency  in  varying 
degrees  is  chiefly  characteristic  of  the  rural  districts,  espe- 
cially of  districts  without  expert  supervision  or  wherein 
teachers  through  inherent  inadaptability  or  acquired 
prejudice  have  failed  to  profit  from  expert  supervision. 
In  many  school  systems  the  defects  of  the  traditional 
method  have  been  largely  remedied  and  oral-reading  drill 
has  been  developed  to  the  point  where  most  of  the  possible 
benefits  are  derived  from  it.  In  such  systems  pupils  are 
no  longer  required  or  even  permitted  to  study  their  reading 
assignments  at  their  seats.  They  read  at  sight  fresh 
stories  each  day  so  that  the  important  element  of  interest 
in  something  new  and  desirable  is  present  during  the 
reading  period.  Only  the  reader  has  a  book.  The  others 
have  to  listen  carefully  if  they  want  to  get  the  whole  story. 
Thus  attention  is  held;  especially  if  the  teacher  calls  upon 
some  member  of  the  class  now  and  then  to  repeat  what  he 
has  just  heard  read.  For  the  reader,  the  audience  situa- 
tion is  provided.  He  is  reading  a  new  and  interesting 
story  to  his  classmates.  He  must  read  his  best  in  order 
that  they  may  understand  him  as  fully  as  possible.  Under 
such  conditions  the  criticisms  of  his  classmates,  to  the 
effect  that  he  does  n't  speak  distinctly  or  loud  enough,  are 
apt  to  be  much  more  effective  than  formal  criticisms  by  the 
teacher.  But  in  spite  of  all  improvements,  oral-reading 
drill  at  its  best  cannot  develop  the  most  valuable  kind  of 
reading  ability. 

Oral  Reading  not  Necessary  for  Beginners 

There  is  a  popular  belief  that  oral-reading  drill  is  a  neces- 
sity with  beginners.     On  the  contrary,  it  is  not  necessary 


READING  AIMS  AND  METHODS  153 

and  is  probably  productive  of  more  harm  than  benefit.  It 
is  unnecessary  because  silent-reading  methods  can  be  used 
to  good  advantage  from  the  very  beginning.  It  is  harmful 
because  it  starts  to  develop  wrong  reading  habits  in  the 
child  from  the  first.  Furthermore,  it  is  of  little  practical 
value  even  in  developing  oral-reading  ability  because  no 
effective  oral  reading  can  be  done  until  the  child  has  ac- 
quired the  ability  rapidly  to  translate  printed  symbols 
directly  into  ideas.  This  ability  can  be  developed  in  the 
young  child  only  through  much  eflScient  silent-reading 
drill.  Over-emphasis  on  oral  reading  in  the  lower  grades 
is  directly  responsible  for  much  of  the  stiff,  stumbling, 
expressionless  oral  reading  in  the  upper  elementary  grades 
and  even  in  high  school.  We  are  requiring  children  to  read 
orally  before  they  have  gained  that  proficiency  in  rapid 
comprehension  which  alone  makes  intelligent  oral  expres- 
sion possible.  Their  minds,  wrongly  trained  from  the 
beginning,  are  often  unfitted  for  eflacient  reading  of  any 
kind.  Hence,  oral  reading  should  not  be  introduced  too 
early  in  the  child's  school  life. 

The  current  contention,  that  emphasis  on  oral  reading 
should  be  strong  in  the  first  grade  and  decreasingly  so 
throughout  the  other  grades,  cannot  be  sustained  on  the 
ground  that  another  procedure  is  not  feasible.  Neither 
can  it  be  sustained  on  psychological  grounds.  The  order 
of  mental  stimuK  and  associations  is  significantly  different 
in  the  two  forms  of  reading.  In  oral  reading  the  visual 
symbol  is  translated  first  into  its  more  famihar  auditory 
symbol,  the  auditory  image  into  an  idea,  and  the  idea  into 
verbal  expression.  Indeed,  with  many  children  if  not  all, 
who  have  been  brought  up  on  oral-reading  drill,  verbal 
expression  seems  to  be  necessary  before  they  can  grasp  the 
idea. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  efficient  silent  reading  the  visual 


154  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

symbol  is  associated  directly  with  the  idea  without  the 
intervention  of  either  auditory  image  or  verbal  expression. 
EfJQcient  silent  reading  is  the  instantaneous  association  of 
printed  words  with  the  ideas  which  the  words  represent. 
The  earlier  we  develop  this  habit  of  direct  association  in 
children,  the  sooner  shall  we  make  them  efficient  and  in- 
telligent readers.  Too  early  drill  in  oral  reading  not  only 
hinders  the  acquirement  of  this  habit  in  early  years,  but 
injures  the  child's  chance  of  acquiring  it  in  later  life. 

When  to  Begin  to  Teach  Oral  Reading 

Just  how  soon  it  is  desirable  to  begin  oral-reading  drill  is 
open  to  argument.  In  general  it  might  be  said  that  it 
should  not  be  until  the  habit  of  direct  association  between 
words  and  their  meanings  has  become  firmly  fixed.  That 
would  probably  mean  the  third  or  fourth  grade  at  the 
earliest.  It  might  possibly  be  introduced  earlier  to  a 
limited  extent  without  great  harm,  provided  care  is  taken 
to  preserve  the  proper  order  of  mental  associations  as  ex- 
plained later. 

It  is  probably  not  advisable  to  drop  formal  drill  in  oral 
reading  altogether,  although  extremists  go  so  far  as  to 
advocate  doing  so.  Something  in  the  nature  of  drill  in 
verbal-motor  reaction  to  printed-word  stimuli  would  seem 
to  be  necessary  to  the  child's  complete  mental  develop- 
ment. There  must  be  drill  in  phonics  and  phonetics  in 
order  to  develop  in  the  child  independence  and  confidence 
in  attacking  new  words.  There  must  be  practice  in  word- 
pronouncing,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  learning  to  pronounce 
new  words,  but  also  for  the  sake  of  building  up  the  speak- 
ing vocabulary.  This  latter  result  is  accomplished  through 
developing  mental  associations  between  visual  forms  and 
auditory  images.  Nor  can  such  practice  be  postponed 
beyond  the  age  of  easy  and  economical  habit  formation, 


READING  AIMS  AND  METHODS  155 

in  other  words,  beyond  the  natural  period  for  effective 
drill.  But  it  should  not  begin  so  early  as  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  other  habits  just  as  important. 

Why  Silent  Reading  should  be  Taught  First 

We  shall  now  turn  our  attention  to  silent  reading.  Why 
is  it  so  much  more  important  to  develop  silent-reading 
ability  in  the  child  than  to  develop  oral-reading  ability, 
admitting  that  oral-reading  ability  is  a  valuable  accom- 
plishment? And  if  both  abilities  are  to  be  developed,  why 
should  silent  reading  come  first? 

It  is  more  important  because  it  is  the  type  of  reading 
ability  that  the  child  needs  to  use  in  studying  history, 
geography,  physiology,  civics,  and  even  mathematics  be- 
yond the  bare  fundamentals.  It  is  almost  the  only  kind 
of  reading  he  will  do  after  he  gets  out  of  school.  It  is 
probably  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  over  ninety-nine  per 
cent  of  the  reading  done  by  most  adults  is  silent  reading. 

Silent  reading  should  come  first  because  oral-reading 
ability  and  silent-reading  ability  are,  psychologically,  two 
very  different  accomplishments,  and,  while  efficiency  in 
silent  reading  is  a  very  necessary  preliminary  to  good  oral 
reading,  effective  drill  in  oral  reading  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
a  positive  hindrance  to  efficient  silent  reading.  Why,  then, 
should  so  large  a  part  of  the  pupil's  school  time  be  devoted 
to  acquiring  an  ability  of  so  little  practical  use  at  the  ex- 
pense of  failing  to  acquire  another  that  is,  beyond  intelli- 
gent dispute,  the  most  useful  one  that  he  can  develop? 

Silent  reading  has  already  been  defined  as  the  process 
of  making  direct  mental  associations  between  visual 
images  and  ideas,  between  printed  words  and  their  mean- 
ings, without  the  intervention  of  auditory  images  or  verbal 
expression.  It  is  the  reading  of  meanings  rather  than  of 
words.     Efficient  silent  reading  means  much  more.     It 


156  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

means  rapid  and  accurate  gathering  of  thoughts  from  the 
printed  page.  An  efificient  silent  reader  takes  in  whole 
thoughts  at  a  glance  and  associates  them  instantly  with 
previous  experience  while  being  scarcely  conscious  of  the 
word-forms.  He  looks  through  the  words  and  is  conscious 
only  of  the  ideas  they  express.  That  the  rapid  reader  not 
only  reads  much  more,  but  retains  more  of  what  he  reads 
and  understands  it  better  than  does  the  slow  reader,  is  a 
fact  so  well  proved  that  further  discussion  is  unnecessary. 
Excellent  psychological  reasons  are  advanced  to  account 
for  this  fact.  Rate  and  comprehension,  the  two  chief 
factors  in  efficient  silent  reading,  go  hand  in  hand. 

Silent  Reading  as  Actually  Taught 

In  progressive  school  systems,  silent-reading  practice  is 
being  given  more  and  more  the  prominence  it  deserves 
in  the  elementary-school  program.  The  methods  and 
technique  in  most  general  use  are,  however,  of  questionable 
efficacy.  Although  the  idea  of  the  need  of  developing 
silent-reading  ability  early  in  the  child's  school  career  is 
spreading  rapidly,  little  attention  seems  to  have  been  given 
to  developing  rational  special  methods.  Hence,  many 
teachers  have  but  a  vague  idea  of  how  best  to  proceed  to  , 
get  good  results. 

Within  the  past  two  years  I  have  visited  a  number  of 
schools  where  it  was  rumored  that  the  teaching  of  silent 
reading  was  a  specialty,  with  the  purpose  of  finding  out 
how  it  was  taught.  Much  of  the  work  was  being  done  by 
normal-school  seniors  as  part  of  their  practice  teaching. 
The  information  I  obtained  was  both  surprising  and  dis- 
couraging. Most  of  the  work  I  witnessed  was  almost  as 
reprehensibly  time-wasting  as  slipshod  oral-reading  drill. 
The  only  idea  most  of  the  teachers  seemed  to  have  of  what 
constitutes  silent-reading  drill  was  that  of  having  children 
read  books  or  selections  from  books  or  periodicals  silently 


READING  AIMS  AND  METHODS  157 

at  their  seats  and  then  of  having  them  give  oral  or  written 
reports  on  what  they  had  read.  Some  of  them  did  not 
even  call  for  reports.  They  merely  accepted  the  child's 
statement  that  he  had  read  over  the  assignment.  Is  that 
kind  of  silent  reading  useless?  Well,  no,  not  entirely. 
Almost  any  kind  of  reading  is  better  than  none.  But  as  a 
means  of  developing  habits  of  concentration  and  rapid 
comprehension  I  should  say  that  it  is,  if  not  entirely  useless, 
at  least  discouragingly  slow.  It  is  like  waiting  for  the 
weather  to  wear  away  a  granite  ledge  instead  of  attacking 
it  with  steam  drills  and  blasting  powder.  I  found  the 
nearest  approach  to  effective  class  drill  in  silent  reading 
where  some  teachers  gave  their  classes  a  definite  length  of 
time,  say  one  minute  or  two  minutes,  in  which  to  read  a 
page  from  a  story  and  then  called  on  some  member  of  the 
class  to  tell  what  he  had  read,  while  the  others  listened 
carefully  to  discover  errors  or  omissions. 

Merely  Giving  Children  Books  to  Read  is  not 

Sufficient 

Now,  what  is  the  matter  with  giving  children  books  to 
read  at  their  seats  for  silent-reading  drill?  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  a  waste  of  school  time.  It  does  not  develop 
silent-reading  ability  to  any  great  extent,  and  it  takes  time 
which  can  be  used  to  better  advantage.  Such  reading  has 
its  place  if  the  material  is  worth  while  either  from  an  in- 
formational or  a  literary  standpoint,  but  it  should  usually 
be  assigned  for  home  work  if  assigned  at  all.  It  may  serve 
as  extra  work  for  brighter  pupils  for  whom  the  ordinary 
class  assignments  are  not  sufficient  to  keep  their  time 
profitably  employed. 

In  the  second  place,  it  does  not  demand,  or  at  least  it 
does  not  force,  that  concentration  of  attention  so  abso- 
lutely essential  to  a  complete  and  accurate  understanding 
of  what  is  read.     Most  of  us  have  had  the  experience  of 


158  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

trying  to  read  something  in  which  we  were  not  particularly 
interested  while  our  thoughts  tended  to  wander  to  more 
congenial  subjects,  or  of  trying  to  read  something  really 
interesting  while  some  other  matter  weighed  heavily  on 
our  minds.  How  many  times  have  we  read  on,  page  after 
page,  without  comprehending  a  single  thought  of  the 
author.  The  boy,  dawdling  and  day-dreaming  over  a 
book  at  his  seat  with  his  thoughts  continually  wandering 
to  the  baseball  field,  is  not  getting  much  worth-while 
silent-reading  practice.  On  the  contrary,  he  is  forming 
very  bad  habits. 

In  the  third  place,  such  practice  does  not  develop  speed, 
that  highly  important  factor  in  efficient  silent  reading. 
In  such  reading  there  is  usually  little  incentive  for  the 
pupil  to  read  rapidly  while  at  the  same  time  concentrating 
his  attention  on  getting  the  thought.  Rate  of  accompHsh- 
ment  is  a  phase  of  performance  that  has  been  largely  neg- 
lected in  estimating  the  relative  abilities  of  pupils,  not 
only  in  reading,  but  in  other  subjects  as  well.  For  in- 
stance, ten  problems  are  assigned  to  a  class  in  arithmetic. 
Both  John  and  James  do  them  all  correctly  and  each  gets 
a  mark  of  one  hundred,  although  John  does  them  in  half 
the  time  that  it  takes  James.  Is  such  marking  fair  to 
John?  He  is  in  one  sense  twice  as  efficient  as  James  in 
arithmetic  and  his  school  marks  should  indicate  that  fact. 
Similarly  in  reading.  The  pupil  who  can  read  three  pages 
in  five  minutes  and  understand  all  that  the  author  has 
said  is  three  times  as  efficient  a  reader  as  he  who  can  read 
but  a  single  page  with  equal  understanding  in  the  same 
length  of  time.  So  unless  we  can  find  something  better  in 
the  way  of  silent-reading  drill  than  merely  to  give  a  child 
some  reading  to  do  at  his  seat  and  perhaps  to  require  a 
written  or  oral  report,  it  would  be  as  well  and  probably 
better  to  stick  to  oral-reading  drill  for  a  few  hundred  years 
longer. 


CHAPTER  XII 

SILENT  READING  IN  THE  LOWER  GRADES 

Reading,  then,  is  the  most  fundamental  subject  taught  in 
the  elementary  grades.  Ability  to  read  is  absolutely  es- 
sential to  progress  along  almost  every  line  of  school  work. 
Reading  is  the  key  with  which  the  pupil  unlocks  the  gates 
of  knowledge;  the  medium  through  which  he  makes  the 
accumulated  information  of  the  race  his  own.  Hence  the 
importance  of  developing  efficient  readers  in  the  lower 
grades  and  our  decision  to  give  reading  a  place  in  our  school 
program  commensurate  with  its  importance. 

Must  Develop  the  Kind  of  Ability  the  Tests 
Measure 

It  was  obvious  from  the  results  of  our  first  reading  tests 
that  if  we  expected  to  bring  the  schools  up  to  the  test 
standards  for  each  grade,  we  must  guide  our  teaching 
efforts  so  as  to  develop  the  kind  of  reading  ability  that  the 
tests  measure.  That  the  customary  oral-reading  drill 
would  not  develop  this  ability,  the  reading  scores  of  the 
upper-grade  pupils  furnished  ample  proof;  for  these  scores 
averaged  much  below  normal  despite  the  fact  that  the 
pupils  had  had  such  drill  for  years.  Besides,  even  the 
standard  scores  for  the  silent-reading  tests  are  probably 
much  too  low,  since  they  are  derived  from  the  results  of 
testing  children  who  have  for  the  most  part  been  taught 
oral  reading. 

After  we  had  made  an  investigation  of  current  practice 
in  the  teaching  of  silent  reading  and  had  studied  the 
meager  literature  on  the  subject,  it  was  equally  obvious 


i6o  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

that  we  should  have  to  depend  largely  on  our  own  in- 
ventive resources  for  a  program  and  method  that  would 
ofifer  hope  of  measurable  results  within  a  reasonable  length 
of  time.  Accordingly,  we  evolved  the  plan  which  I  am 
about  to  set  forth. 

The  Success  of  the  Plan  Adopted 

This  program  has  not  proved  an  unqualified  success  in 
every  school  or  with  every  teacher.  But  in  most  schools 
it  has  proved  reasonably  effective,  and  in  every  school 
wherein  the  pupils  average  normal  in  intelligence  and  are 
taught  by  a  teacher  who  has  entered  into  the  spirit  of  the 
work,  it  has  proved  effective  beyond  our  most  sanguine 
expectations.  There  are  a  few  small  schools  in  the  dis- 
trict where  the  average  mental  level  is  too  low  to  expect 
normal  results  under  any  method  or  any  teacher.  There 
are  a  few  teachers  who,  either  because  of  lack  of  teaching 
ability  or  unwillingness  to  cooperate  whole-heartedly  in 
the  experiment,  have  failed  to  get  better  results.  It  has 
been  impossible  as  yet  to  replace  all  of  them  because  of  the 
great  shortage  of  teachers  during  the  last  two  or  three 
years.  But  I  am  convinced  from  the  results  achieved 
by  our  better  teachers  that,  with  a  reasonably  capable 
teacher,  the  plan  will  produce  excellent  results  in  every 
school  where  the  pupils  average  normal  mentality.  At 
any  rate,  though  by  no  means  perfect,  it  has  enabled  us  to 
bring  most  of  our  schools  up  to  the  grade  standards  of 
Monroe's  Silent  Reading  Test  within  the  year  and  a  half 
during  which  it  has  been  in  operation. 

Reading  in  Grade  I 

It  vas  a  great  step  in  advance  when  teaching  the  alphabet 
was  discarded  as  the  initiatory  step  in  teaching  beginners 
to  read,  and  when  the  teaching  of  whole  words,  phrases, 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     i6i 

and  sentences  was  substituted  therefor.  It  will  be  another 
great  step  forward  when  the  elimination  of  verbal-motor 
expression  in  primary  reading  work  becomes  general. 
The  first  problem  confronting  the  teacher  with  a  class  of 
beginners  is  to  help  them  acquire  a  visual  vocabulary  while 
at  the  same  time  forcing  them  to  make  direct  associations 
between  printed  words  and  the  ideas  they  represent.  The 
only  way  this  can  be  done  is  to  eliminate  as  far  as  possible 
in  class  drills  the  pronunciation,  either  by  teacher  or  pupils, 
of  the  new  words  being  presented  to  the  class.  Whenever 
possible  teachers  should  indicate  the  meanings  of  new 
words  by  other  than  verbal  means,  and  the  pupils  should 
indicate  their  understanding  of  the  meanings  without 
actually  pronouncing  the  words.  Of  course,  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  do  away  entirely  with  verbal  forms  and  auditory 
images  because  there  are  many  common  words,  such  as 
articles,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  abstract  nouns,  with 
their  adjective  and  adverb  derivatives,  and  verbs  other 
than  verbs  of  action,  which  cannot  be  introduced  economi- 
cally if  at  all  in  any  other  way  than  orally.  B ut  the  teacher 
can  exercise  considerable  ingenuity  in  trying  to  teach  the 
meaning  of  a  word  before  having  recourse  to  pronouncing 
it  and  explaining  it  orally. 

Now,  to  what  words  in  visual  form  shall  we  first  intro- 
duce the  beginner  in  this  process  of  vocabulary-building? 
Obviously  to  the  words  belonging  to  the  speaking  vocabu- 
lary which  he  has  already  acquired.  To  begin  with,  there 
is  a  large  number  of  words  which  we  can  be  sure  are  com- 
mon to  the  vocabularies  of  most  seven-and-eight-year-olds 
who  have  been  brought  up  under  normal  conditions  in  this 
country.  Many  other  words  known  in  general  to  the 
particular  group  can  be  found  by  drawing  the  pupils  into 
conversation  or  discussion  and  noting  the  words  which 
they  use  and  which  all  of  them  seem  to  understand.     Not 


i62  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

until  the  possibilities  of  the  children's  own  speaking 
vocabularies  are  exhausted  is  it  necessary  to  turn  to  the 
vocabularies  of  books. 

Teaching  the  First  Words 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  teacher  has  chosen  for  the  first 
lesson  a  list  of  ten  words  which  she  is  sure  corresponds  to 
a  part  of  the  stock  of  ideas  common  to  all  the  children  in 
the  class.  The  hst  might  be  as  follows:  hoy,  girl,  the,  run, 
jump,  sit,  chair,  pencil,  hook,  desk.  How  is  she  going  to 
teach  the  meanings  of  these  words  without  pronouncing 
them  or  permitting  the  pupils  to  pronounce  them?  To 
begin  with,  she  should  have  each  word  printed  neatly  on  a 
separate  card  about  a  foot  long  and  three  inches  wide  — 
large  enough  at  least  so  that  the  printed  word  can  be 
clearly  seen  by  the  entire  class  at  one  time.  Such  cards 
are  similar  to  the  ordinary  quick-perception  cards;  but 
their  use  is  quite  different  from  the  usual  use  of  quick- 
perception  cards.  Generally  such  a  card  is  flashed  for  an 
instant  before  the  pupil's  eyes.  He  is  then  supposed  to 
recognize  it  and  respond  with  the  vocal  form.  This  vocal 
response,  however,  is  just  what  we  want  to  avoid  at  first. 
The  better  way  is  for  the  teacher  to  begin  with  three  words; 
as,  book,  pencil,  chair.  She  exposes  each  word  in  turn 
while  calling  the  attention  of  the  class  to  the  object  which 
it  represents.  Then  she  goes  over  them  again  asking  a 
pupil  to  point  out  the  objects.  This  process  is  repeated 
with  different  pupils  until  the  whole  class  is  able  to  recog- 
nize the  words  as  representing  particular  objects.  Then 
another  word  is  included,  after  illustrating  its  meaning; 
and  the  drill  is  repeated. 

This  procedure  continues  until  all  the  words  in  the  list 
are  learned  thoroughly.  This  may  take  one  period  or 
several.     It  is  slow  work  at  first,  but  it  pays.    Thorough- 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     163 

ness  is  essential.  Run  and  jump,  being  verbs  of  action, 
can  be  easily  illustrated  by  the  teacher.  The  word  the 
must  be  told  outright.  The  pupils  are  familiar  with  its 
use  and  need  only  to  become  acquainted  with  its  visual 
form.  Concrete  nouns  and  verbs  of  action  which  are 
capable  of  easy  illustration  should  constitute  the  bulk  of 
the  words  taught  during  the  first  term,  in  order  to  avoid 
so  far  as  possible  the  necessity  of  pronunciation  and  oral 
explanation.  When  words  must  of  necessity  be  presented 
orally,  there  should  be  no  more  repetition  of  the  pronuncia- 
tion than  is  absolutely  necessary. 

Keeping  the  Right  Order  of  Association 

Not  until  a  considerable  number  of  words  have  been 
taught  in  this  way,  and  the  habit  of  forming  direct  associa- 
tion between  printed  words  and  ideas  has  been  well  started, 
should  the  vocal  forms  be  used  in  class  drill  unless  they 
cannot  be  avoided.  Indeed,  beyond  what  is  absolutely 
essential,  it  is  a  question  whether  or  not  they  should  be 
used  at  all  during  the  first  half-year.  But  if  it  seems 
necessary  to  use  them,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  pre- 
serve the  proper  order  of  mental  associations.  Do  not  let 
the  auditory  image  get  between  the  visual  image  and  the 
idea.  The  proper  order,  so  far  as  reading  is  concerned,  is: 
Visual  Image,  Idea,  Auditory  Image,  Verbal-Motor  Ex- 
pression; not  Visual  Image,  Auditory  Image,  Verbal- 
Motor  Expression,  Idea.  It  makes  a  great  deal  of  differ- 
ence, as  regards  the  development  of  present  silent-reading 
efficiency  and  future  oral-reading  efficiency,  which  order 
of  associations  is  formed  in  the  child's  mind  in  the  very 
beginning. 

Hence  the  importance  of  getting  the  direct  associations 
between  words  and  their  meanings  before  verbal  expression 
is  permitted  in  connection  with  the  class  drill.    The  proper 


1 64  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

order  of  associations  can  be  maintained  by  the  above- 
described  process  of  vocabulary  development  preceding 
the  oral  naming  of  objects  or  actions.  When  a  strange 
word  is  presented  to  a  child,  it  means  nothing  to  him,  al- 
though he  may  be  perfectly  familiar  with  the  object  which 
it  represents  and  the  spoken  word  which  stands  for  it.  If 
the  teacher  points  to  the  object  instead  of  pronouncing  it, 
the  printed  word  is  first  associated  with  its  meaning  in  the 
child's  mind.  Although,  if  the  idea  is  familiar  to  the  child, 
this  association  immediately  calls  up  another  previously 
formed  association,  namely,  that  of  the  idea  with  its 
auditory  symbol,  nevertheless  the  association  of  the  visual 
form  with  the  idea  has  been  made  first,  and  thus  the  proper 
order  of  associations  has  been  maintained.  To  illustrate, 
suppose  the  teacher  holds  up  a  card  with  the  word  desk  on 
it.  The  children  have  never  seen  the  printed  word  before. 
It  means  nothing  to  them,  although  they  know  perfectly 
well  what  a  desk  is,  and  how  to  say  the  word.  There  has 
been  no  association  formed  between  the  printed  word  and 
its  meaning.  Let  the  teacher  point  to  the  word  and  then 
to  a  desk,  and  instantly  the  association  is  made,  and  fol- 
lowed instantly  by  the  auditory  image  which  tends  toward 
verbal-motor  expression  unless  the  latter  is  repressed. 

But  suppose  the  teacher  pronounces  the  word  for  the 
class  instead  of  pointing  out  the  object  which  it  represents. 
The  children  know  instantly  what  it  means  because  asso- 
ciation has  been  previously  formed  between  the  idea  and 
the  spoken  word.  But  here  the  spoken  word  intervenes 
between  the  printed  word  and  its  meaning,  thus  setting  up 
an  order  of  associations  which  is  wrong  from  the  point  of 
view  of  reading.  This  is  just  what  happens  when  quick- 
perception  cards  are  used  in  the  ordinary  way  Moreover, 
when  this  oral  method  is  used,  children  may  learn  through 
imitation  of  the  teacher  to  recognize  and  pronounce  new 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     165 

words  without  grasping  their  meanings.  Suppose  a  card 
is  shown  with  a  word  representing  an  idea  wholly  outside  of 
the  child's  experience.  The  teacher  pronounces  it  and  the 
child  pronounces  it  after  her.  In  time  he  learns  to  recog- 
nize it  and  to  pronounce  it  correctly  when  he  sees  it  either 
on  the  card  or  in  a  book;  but,  wherever  he  meets  it,  it  has 
no  meaning  for  him.  The  method  here  suggested  ensures 
that  the  child  will  get  the  meaning  of  every  new  word. 
If  we  must  teach  the  vocal  forms  of  words  along  with  their 
visual  forms,  let  us  first  make  sure  that  they  know  their 
meanings  by  some  assurance  other  than  oral  before  they 
are  asked  to  pronounce  them. 

Teaching  Sentences 

As  soon  as  a  sufficient  number  of  words  have  been  learned 
by  the  class,  the  teacher  should  begin  to  make  use  of  short 
sentences  made  up  of  the  words  already  learned  from  the 
quick-perception  cards.  In  order  to  avoid  so  far  as  possi- 
ble the  necessity  for  oral  reading,  these  sentences  should 
express  simple  actions  which  children  can  perform  in  the 
schoolroom,  or  ideas  which  permit  them  in  some  other  way 
than  orally  to  express  their  complete  understanding  of  the 
thought  of  the  sentences.  Below  are  a  few  examples  of 
such  sentences. 

1.  Open  the  door. 

2.  Show  me  a  pencil. 

3.  Go  to  the  window. 

4.  Pick  up  a  book. 

5.  Sit  in  the  chair. 

A  pupil  can  easily  express  his  understanding  of  such 
sentences  through  action  without  speaking  a  word.  Not 
until  he  has  performed  the  act  expressed  by  a  sentence,  if 
at  all,  should  he  be  asked  or  permitted  to  read  it  orally. 


i66  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

This  is  real,  efficient  silent-reading  drill  which  can  be 
used  eflfectively  with  the  little  ones  after  the  first  three  or 
four  weeks  of  vocabulary-building.  Some  people  hold 
that  oral  reading  is  absolutely  necessary  in  beginning  to 
teach  reading;  except  through  oral  expression,  they  con- 
ceive of  no  way  of  knowing  whether  or  not  a  child  is  mak- 
ing proper  progress.  Our  experience,  however,  with  the 
method  I  am  describing  shows  that  oral  reading  is  emphat- 
ically not  necessary.  Besides,  one  must  remember  that 
oral  expression  is  no  safe  indication  of  progress  in  reading 
ability,  because  it  does  not  prove  understanding  of  what  is 
being  read.  The  drill  described  above  does  prove  such 
understanding.  If  a  child,  after  glancing  at  the  first  sen- 
tence, walks  to  a  door  and  opens  it,  he  proves  conclusively 
that  he  understands  the  sentence. 

Of  course,  this  method  of  teaching  reading  cannot  be 
expected  to  appeal  strongly  to  the  type  of  teacher  whose 
chief  interest  is  in  her  salary.  It  demands  considerably 
more  thought  and  effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  than 
does  the  customary  oral-reading  drill.  She  cannot  crochet, 
or  write  letters,  or  even  put  work  on  the  board  for  other 
classes  while  using  it.  She  must  plan  her  work  ahead  and 
be  prepared  from  day  to  day  with  suitable  material.  She 
must  go  to  the  trouble  of  carefully  selecting  new  words  for 
the  vocabulary-building  drills  and  of  printing  them  on 
cards  for  class  use.  She  must  devise  and  print  large  num- 
bers of  action  sentences  for  the  sentence  interpretation 
work.  Cheap  manila  cardboard,  commonly  known  as 
"tag,"  should  be  furnished  her  for  this  purpose.  A  chart- 
marker  should  also  be  furnished  for  each  schoolroom;  but 
if  this  is  not  available,  the  printing  can  be  done  by  hand 
with  the  rubber  end  of  an  ordinary  lead  pencil  dipped 
in  black  drawing  ink.  The  chart-marker  is  naturally 
very  much  to  be  preferred  because  it  has  the  same  letter 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     167 

forms  that  the  pupil  will  meet  in  the  books  he  is  to  study 
later. 

The  Use  of  Pictures 

To  illustrate  the  meanings  of  all  concrete  nouns  by  means 
of  tJie  objects  themselves  is  impossible.  It  would  be  rather 
awkward  to  import  a  barn  or  a  locomotive  into  the  school- 
room to  illustrate  the  meaning  of  a  word.  Obviously  the 
next  best  thing  to  the  object  itself  is  a  good  picture  of  it. 
So,  the  real  live  teacher,  with  efficiency  in  view,  will  make 
a  collection  of  pictures  with  which  to  illustrate  ideas  to  her 
classes.  The  papers  and  magazines  are  full  of  suitable 
material,  and  a  picture  of  almost  any  object  under  the  sun 
can  be  found  in  the  big  catalogues  of  mail-order  houses. 

These  pictures  should  be  pasted  on  small  cards,  and  they 
should  be  kept  neatly  filed  and  indexed.  Every  school- 
room ought  to  have  a  filing  cabinet  for  this  purpose. 
After  choosing  the  new  words  to  be  taught,  the  teacher 
should  take  from  the  cabinet  pictures  to  illustrate  their 
meanings  if  they  are  words  whose  meanings  can  be  so 
illustrated.  A  word  may  be  shown  first  and  then  a  picture 
to  illustrate  it  until  all  the  new  words  have  been  thus  ex- 
plained as  to  meaning.  Then  the  pictures  may  be  spread 
out  on  a  table,  the  words  flashed  in  turn,  and  the  pupils 
asked  to  pick  out  the  proper  pictures.  This  drill  may  be 
continued  until  all  the  words  are  instantaneously  asso- 
ciated with  their  meanings  as  shown  by  the  readiness  of  the 
children  in  choosing  the  correct  pictures. 

Probably  there  is  no  other  device  so  efficient  in  vocabu- 
lary-building as  the  illustrated  vocabulary.  Something 
of  this  kind  in  particularly  effective  form  for  seat  work  is 
now  sold  by  Milton  Bradley  &  Co.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 
It  consists  of  a  series  of  cards  about  4x5  inches,  each  card 
bearing  a  picture  of  some  object.    In  each  lower  corner  of 


I68 


STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


the  card  is  printed  the  name  of  the  object  illustrated.  The 
right-hand  lower  corner  with  one  of  the  words  on  it  is  cut 
out.  The  cards  and  the  cut-out  corners  are  all  shufHed 
together  and  it  is  the  pupil's  task  to  match  the  words  on 


Fig.  13 


the  cut-off  corners  with  the  words  and  pictures  on  the 
cards,  putting  the  corners  in  the  places  from  which  they 
were  cut  so  as  to  form  complete  cards.  The  accompanying 
figure  will  make  plain  the  idea. 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     169 

This  plan  is  excellent,  but  the  range  of  words  so  far  il- 
lustrated is  much  too  limited.  If  the  range  could  be  ex- 
tended to  include  five  or  six  hundred  of  the  common  words 
capable  of  pictorial  explanation,  it  would  be  a  wonderful 
help  in  the  teaching  of  silent  reading  in  the  lower  grades. 

If  I  remember  correctly,  the  scheme  is  self-correcting. 
If  not,  it  could  easily  be  made  so  by  varying  the  shape  of 
the  cut-out  so  that  it  would  fit  only  the  card  from  which  it 
was  cut.  With  this  self-correcting  feature  there  would  be 
no  need  of  a  printed  word  on  the  main  card;  and  I  am  not 
sure  but  that  it  would  be  better  to  omit  it.  If  it  is  not 
omitted,  it  may  well  be  that  pupils  will  lit  the  corners  by 
matching  words  without  having  their  attention  particu- 
larly attracted  to  the  picture  which  illustrates  the  meaning 
of  the  word.  In  fact,  with  the  word  printed  on  the  main 
card  with  the  picture,  there  is  no  very  strong  incentive  for 
fitting  the  corners  at  all.  With  this  word  omitted,  the 
game  would  be  to  fit  the  corner  in  order  to  find  out  by  the 
picture  what  the  word  on  the  cut-out  means. 

Reading  from  Books  —  Little  good  Material 
Available 

The  drills  in  vocabulary-building  and  sentence-interpreta- 
tion described  above  should  be  continued  throughout  the 
first  half-year,  or  until  the  children  have  acquired  sufficient 
vocabulary  and  reading  ability  to  read  a  simple,  short, 
connected  story  from  a  book  and  then  to  tell  the  story  in 
their  own  words.  Then  it  is  time  to  begin  reading  from 
books.  And  right  here  is  where  we  meet  with  the  first 
real  difficulty  in  teaching  silent  reading  to  beginners.  The 
difficulty  exists  simply  because  the  reading  material  in 
primers  and  first  readers  is  mostly  unsuited  to  class  drill 
in  silent  reading.  Here,  for  instance,  is  a  selection  from  a 
certain  first  reader. 


170  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

"  Mary  is  making  a  pancake. 
It  is  fun  to  mix  a  pancake. 
It  is  fun  to  stir  a  pancake. 
Pop  it  in  the  pan! 
See  Mary  make  a  pancake. 
See  the  pancake  in  the  pan. 
It  is  fun  to  stir  a  pancake. 
It  is  fun  to  pop  it  in  the  pan." 

Imagine  asking  a  little  child  to  read  this  silently  and 
then  tell  the  "  story  "  in  his  own  words!  There  simply 
is  n't  any  story  to  it.  Here  is  another  gem  from  near  the 
end  of  the  same  book: 

"This  is  a  rainy  day. 
I  cannot  go  out  to  play  in  the  rain. 
I  see  the  organ  man,  Susan. 
The  organ  man  is  playing  in  the  rain. 
Here  is  a  penny,  Susan. 
The  organ  man  will  play  for  a  penny. 
Run  to  the  door  and  give  the  organ  man  this  penny." 

This  is  not  much  better.  The  rhymes  are  even  worse  for 
silent  reading  purposes.  Yet  these  are  representative 
samples  of  the  incoherent  contents  of  most  modern  first 
readers.  The  primers  are  even  greater  conglomerations  of 
unrelated  nonsense.  Some  of  the  material  may  be  worth 
while  as  literature,  interesting  to  little  children,  and  per- 
fectly adapted  to  oral-reading  drill.  But  it  is  n't  oral- 
reading  ability  that  we  want  to  develop  at  this  stage.  We 
want  to  develop  silent-reading  ability,  and  for  this  purpose 
such  material  is  not  at  all  suitable.  In  fact  there  seems  to 
be  little  material  simple  enough  to  be  available  for  first- 
grade  use  that  is  also  suitable  for  silent-reading  class  drill 
in  that  grade. 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     171 

An  Example  of  Usable  Materl\l 

I  have  just  finished  examining  seven  primers  and  ten  first 
readers  in  an  attempt  to  find  some  pieces  with  which  to 
illustrate  silent-reading  class  drill  for  little  folks.  In  but 
one  first  reader  did  I  find  a  few  simple  stories  coherent 
enough  to  make  sensible  reading,  and  they  are  largely 
spoiled  for  my  purpose  by  containing  too  much  direct  dis- 
course. For  direct  discourse,  which  is  so  eminently  suited 
to  oral  reading,  is  about  the  poorest  sort  of  material  for 
silent-reading  class  drill.  Here  is  a  part  of  one  of  the 
stories,  with  much  of  the  direct  discourse  left  out  or 
changed  to  narrative: 

RED  HEN  AND  THE  FOX 
I 

Red  Hen  lived  in  a  little  red  house. 

Near  the  house  lived  Sly  Fox. 

His  mother  lived  with  him. 

One  day  Mother  Fox  said,  "I  want  a  hen  to  eat." 

II 
"Very  well,  mother,"  said  Sly  Fox,  "I  will  get  one  for  you." 
He  told  his  mother  to  get  a  pot  of  hot  water  ready. 
Then  Sly  Fox  took  a  bag  and  went  to  Red  Hen's  house. 

Ill 

Red  Hen  was  in  the  garden. 

She  saw  Sly  Fox. 

Red  Hen  flew  up  on  her  little  house. 

She  thought  she  would  be  safe  there. 

A  fox  cannot  fly. 

IV 

When  Sly  Fox  saw  Red  Hen  on  the  house,  he  said, 

"I'll  get  her  now." 
So  he  ran  round  and  round  and  round  the  house. 
It  made  Red  Hen  so  dizzy  that  she  fell  off  the  house. 
Sly  Fox  put  her  in  his  bag  and  away  he  ran. 


172  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

One  Way  of  Using  Such  Material 

Now,  we  vary  the  class  drill  on  such  reading  material  in 
three  ways.  One  way  is  to  give  the  whole  class  a  definite 
length  of  time  to  read  a  certain  amount  of  material  and 
then  to  have  one  of  the  pupils  tell  in  his  own  words  what 
he  has  just  read.  Meanwhile  the  rest  listen  with  books 
closed  and  watch  for  errors  or  omissions.  These  they  are 
permitted  to  supply,  after  the  reciting  pupil  has  told  all  he 
can  remember.  To  illustrate,  let  us  suppose  the  teacher  is 
going  to  give  the  class  a  minute  in  which  to  read  section  i  of 
the  above  story.  Everybody  keeps  his  book  closed,  with 
a  finger  marking  the  place,  until  the  teacher  gives  the  word 
to  begin.  At  the  end  of  a  minute,  she  says  "  Stop,"  and 
the  books  are  instantly  closed.  John,  called  upon  to 
recite,  reproduces  the  following  ideas  from  the  story: 

"Red  Hen  lived  in  a  little  house.  A  fox  and  his  mother 
lived  in  another  house  near  by.  One  day  his  mother  said, 
*I  want  a  hen.'" 

When  he  has  finished,  the  teacher  calls  for  volunteers  to 
supply  omitted  facts  or  to  correct  errors  of  statement. 
In  this  way  the  following  omissions  and  corrections  may 
be  noted: 

1.  The  kind  of  a  little  house  in  which  Red  Hen  lived. 

2.  The  name  of  the  fox. 

3.  Why  the  mother  fox  wanted  a  hen. 

4.  The  story  does  not  say  that  the  foxes  lived  in  a  house. 
John's  statement  to  the  effect  that  they  lived  in  a  house 
shows  that  he  did  not  fully  understand  what  he  read 
and  is  evidence  of  somewhat  careless  reading. 

There  are  at  least  two  advantages  of  this  method  of 
class  drill  in  silent  reading: 

(i)  Everybody  is  working  all  the  time.   Each  pupil  reads 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     173 

(a)  with  concentration  because  he  may  be  the  one  called 
upon  to  recite,  and  (b)  rapidly  because  his  time  is  limited. 
Concentration  of  attention  is  conducive  to  accurate  com- 
prehension, and  speed  and  accuracy  of  comprehension  are 
the  two  chief  factors  in  efficient  silent  reading.  (2)  The 
pupil  reciting  gets  practice  in  thinking  on  his  feet  and  in 
expressing  his  thoughts  orally,  thus  affording  most  of  the 
benefits  of  oral  reading  with  few  of  its  defects. 

A  possible  defect  of  the  plan  is  that  a  good  verbal 
memory  may  simulate  real  comprehension  in  reproducing 
what  has  been  read.  However,  I  believe  psychologists 
concede  that  ability  to  summarize  in  their  proper  relations 
the  main  facts  of  a  story  or  other  selection  in  one's  own 
words  is  a  fair  indication  that  the  subject-matter  is  under- 
stood. But  the  pupil  who  tries  to  keep  too  closely  to  the 
words  and  expressions  of  the  book  in  his  oral  reproductions 
can  be  justly  suspected  of  lack  of  understanding. 

The  time  limit  and  the  amount  of  material  assigned  for 
each  reading  should  vary  with  the  average  ability  of  the 
class  and  the  type  of  matter  to  be  read.  The  length  of  time 
should  be  so  adjusted  to  the  amount  of  material  that  the 
majority  of  the  children  will  be  forced  to  read  at  top  speed 
in  order  to  cover  the  assignment  within  the  period.  Com- 
prehension will  suffer  at  first,  but  in  no  other  way  can 
normal  speed  be  developed  within  a  reasonable  length  of 
time.  Under  such  conditions  pupils  who  have  already 
formed  bad  habits  of  lip-movement  or  of  spelling  out 
words  will  be  forced  to  abandon  them  in  order  to  keep  up 
with  the  others. 

The  time  allowed  for  reading  an  assignment  should  not 
be  so  long  as  to  prevent  a  considerable  number  of  children 
from  having  an  opportunity  to  recite  during  each  class 
period.  If  the  time  for  each  assignment  is  three  minutes 
and  the  reading  period  fifteen  minutes,  not  more  than  three 


174  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

or  four  pupils  can  recite  during  a  period.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  time  limit  is  one  minute,  eight  or  nine  children 
will  get  a  chance  to  recite.  A  time  limit  of  from  half  a 
minute  to  a  minute  for  all  grades,  the  amount  of  material 
to  be  read  being  adjusted  accordingly,  will  produce  excel- 
lent results  as  the  records  of  our  schools  prove. 

The  assignment  should  not  be  so  long  as  to  preclude  the 
possibility  of  fairly  complete  reproduction  of  details  from 
memory;  nor  should  it  be  so  short  as  to  make  possible  the 
verbatim  memorization  of  the  words  of  the  book  in  the 
time  allowed  for  the  reading. 

A  Second  Method 

A  SECOND  way  of  treating  the  same  material  is  for  the 
teacher  to  prepare  beforehand  a  list  of  questions  based  or 
the  text  to  be  read.  After  the  pupils  have  read  a  section, 
timed  as  before,  she  may  test  their  comprehension  of  the 
thought  by  asking  the  question  the  answers  to  which  are 
given  or  suggested  in  the  section  read.  Let  me  repeat  here 
the  four  sections  of  our  selection  with  appropriate  ques- 
tions on  each. 

RED  HEN  AND  THE  FOX 

I 

Red  Hen  lived  in  a  little  red  house.  Near  the  house  lived 
Sly  Fox.  His  mother  lived  with  him.  One  day  Mother  Fox 
said,  "  I  want  a  hen  to  eat." 

1.  In  what  kind  of  a  little  house  did  Red  Hen  live? 

2.  Who  lived  near  them? 

3.  Who  lived  with  Sly  Fox? 

4.  What  did  Mother  Fox  say  she  wanted? 

5.  What  did  she  want  it  for? 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     175 

n 

"Very  well,  mother,"  said  Sly  Fox,  "I  will  get  one  for  you." 
So  Sly  Fox  told  his  mother  to  get  ready  a  pot  of  hot  water. 
Then  he  took  a  bag  and  went  to  Red  Hen's  house. 

1.  What  did  Sly  Fox  tell  his  mother  he  would  do? 

2.  What  did  he  tell  his  mother  to  do? 

3.  Then  where  did  he  go? 

4.  What  did  he  take  with  him? 

5.  What  do  you  suppose  the  pot  of  hot  water  was  for? 

6.  What  do  you  suppose  the  bag  was  for? 

Ill 

Red  Hen  was  in  her  garden.  She  saw  Sly  Fox.  Red  Hen 
flew  up  on  her  little  house.  She  thought  she  would  be  safe 
there.    A  fox  cannot  fly. 

1.  Where  was  Red  Hen? 

2.  What  did  she  do  when  she  saw  the  fox? 

3.  Why  did  she  do  it? 

4.  Why  did  she  think  she  would  be  safe  there? 

IV 

When  Sly  Fox  saw  Red  Hen  on  the  house,  he  said,  "I'll 
get  you  now."  So  he  ran  round  and  round  and  round  the 
house.  It  made  Red  Hen  so  dizzy  that  she  fell  off  the  house. 
Sly  Fox  put  her  into  his  bag  and  away  he  ran. 

1.  What  did  Sly  Fox  say  when  he  saw  Red  Hen  on  the 
house? 

2.  What  did  he  do? 

3.  What  happened  to  Red  Hen? 

4.  What  did  Sly  Fox  do  with  her? 

A  Third  Method 

According  to  a  third  variation  in  method,  the  teacher  may 
prepare  questions  as  just  shown,  but,  instead  of  having  the 
class  read  a  section  beforehand  and  then  asking  the  pupils 
to  answer  the  questions  from  memory,  she  may  ask  the 


176  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

questions  one  at  a  time  and  let  them  read  to  find  the 
answers.  The  game  is  to  see  who  can  find  the  answer  first. 
This  practice  has  some  advantages  over  the  others  in  that 
it  (a)  ensures  better  concentration,  and  (b)  soon  develops 
the  ability  to  scan  quickly  a  paragraph  or  a  page  in  search 
of  a  definite  idea  while  ignoring  unessential  details.  Such 
ability  is  very  useful  later  in  studying  lessons  from  topical 
outlines.  It  is  really  a  treat  to  see  the  little  tots  concen- 
trating on  their  work,  each  one  trembling  with  eagerness 
to  be  the  first  to  discover  the  right  idea. 

Second  Readers  Begin  est  the  Last  Half  of  the 
First  Year 

Now  let  us  return  for  a  moment  to  the  before-mentioned 
lack  of  suitable  book  material  for  silent-reading  class  drill 
in  the  first  grade.  Little  of  such  material  is  found  in 
present-day  primers  and  first  readers.  All  these  books 
were  designed  for  oral-reading  drUl.  Not  until  we  come 
to  the  second  readers  do  we  find  any  considerable  amount 
of  material  of  a  usable  nature  and  here  the  vocabulary 
requirements  are  rather  heavy.  Nevertheless,  we  have 
been  obliged  to  use  them  during  the  last  part  of  the  first 
year  because  they  are,  for  the  most  part,  the  only  suitable 
books  available.  Their  use  has  been  possible  only  because 
the  vocabulary-building  and  sentence-interpretation  drill 
above  described  really  develop  reading  ability  with  sur- 
prising rapidity  when  properly  handled.  By  the  end  of 
the  first  half-year  of  such  drill,  most  of  the  first-year  pupils 
in  the  schools  where  the  plan  has  been  inteUigently  carried 
out  can  do  very  well  at  reading  simple  stories  at  sight. 

By  continuing  these  drills,  using  the  new  words  in  the 
reading  books  for  vocabulary-building,  the  action  sentences 
made  up  from  these  words  for  sentence-interpretation,  we 
were  able  to  begin  with  second  readers  soon  after  the 


I 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     177 

middle  of  the  first  year  in  the  schools  that  had  been  undei 
capable  instruction.  And  these  schools  were  not  taught 
by  highly  trained  and  broadly  experienced  teachers.  The 
good  results  were  accomplished  through  interest,  industry', 
and  common  sense.  Of  course,  all  the  new  words  in  each 
story  had  to  be  thoroughly  taught  before  the  story  could 
be  used  for  silent-reading  drill. 

TiiE  Result  in  One  School 

The  results  in  some  schools  are  astonishingly  good.  I 
visited  one  school  just  recently  and  witnessed  a  silent- 
reading  drill  that  almost  took  my  breath  away.  A  second 
grade,  of  nine  pupils,  none  of  them  more  than  eight  and  a 
half  years  old,  was  reading  a  simplified  version  of  Robinson 
Crusoe  by  the  timed-section  method  described  above. 
The  text  was  of  a  degree  of  difliculty  usually  assigned  to 
the  fourth  or  fifth  grade.  The  teacher  informed  me  that 
they  had  just  finished  reading  some  stories  from  the 
Arabiaft  Nights  a  few  days  before.  These  pupils  were 
reading  a  full  page  of  the  text  in  half  a  minute  and  then 
getting  up  and  telling  what  they  had  read,  scarcely  omitting 
a  detail  of  any  importance.  They  not  only  told  it,  but 
they  told  it  smoothly  in  their  own  words  with  good  ex- 
pression and  using  good  English.  They  could  certainly 
talk  on  their  feet  without  hesitation  or  embarrassment. 
Nor  was  this  a  spectacular  exhibition  by  very  bright 
pupils.  I  looked  up  their  mental  test  records  on  the  spot. 
While  it  is  true  that  there  was  none  with  an  intelligence 
quotient  below  90,  there  were  only  two  with  intelligence 
quotients  above  1 10.  These  two  had  intelligence  quotients 
of  116  and  iiQ  respectively.  The  class  was  just  an  aver- 
age group  of  children  who  had  been  under  the  right  kind  of 
reading  instruction  from  the  first.  They  were  shining 
examples  of  what  is  possible  in  the  way  of  teaching  reading. 


178  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

The  Kind  of  Material  Needed  for  First-Grade  Use 

To  begin  with,  it  would  be  a  great  help  to  have  some  books 
to  replace  the  ordinary  primers  and  first  readers  —  books 
containing  the  usual  children's  classics  written  in  pure 
narrative  form  without  direct  discourse.  To  illustrate,  I 
will  reproduce  here  a  story  as  it  is  found  in  a  popular  first 
reader,  and  then  give  the  same  story  in  rewritten  form 
suitable  for  silent-reading  drill,  or  at  least  as  nearly  suit- 
able as  purely  literary  narrative  can  be. 

I 

•    THE  THREE  LITTLE  PIGS 

Once  there  was  a  mother  pig. 
The  mother  pig  had  three  little  pigs. 
There  was  little  pig  One. 
There  was  little  pig  Two. 
There  was  little  pig  Three. 
One  day  the  mother  pig  said, 
"  Go,  find  some  work,  little  pigs." 
The  little  pigs  went  to  find  work. 

Little  pig  One  said,  "I  shall  build  me  a  house." 
Little  pig  Two  said,  "I  shall  build  me  a  house." 
Little  pig  Three  said,  "  I  shall  build  me  a  house." 

Little  pig  One  said, 

"I  shall  build  a  soft  house." 

Little  pig  Two  said, 

"I  shall  build  a  tall  house." 

Little  pig  Three  said, 

"I  shall  build  a  strong  house." 

One  day  little  pig  One  found  some  straw. 
The  straw  was  soft. 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     179 

Little  pig  One  said, 

"  This  straw  will  make  my  house  soft. 

I  will  build  a  straw  house." 

Then  little  pig  One  built  a  house  of  the  soft  straw. 

One  day  a  wolf  came  to  the  straw  house. 
The  wolf  knocked  at  the  door. 
The  little  pig  ran  to  the  door. 
The  wolf  said: 

"Little  pig,  little  pig, 
Let  me  come  in." 

"No,  no,  by  the  hair 
Of  my  chinny-chin-chin." 

"Then  I'll  huff  and  I 'U  puff 
And  I  '11  blow  your  house  in." 

Then  the  wolf  huffed  and  puffed  and  blew  in  the  straw  house 
and  ate  up  the  little  pig. 

Little  pig  Two  found  some  sticks. 

Little  pig  Two  said, 

"The  sticks  will  not  make  a  strong  house. 

The  sticks  will  make  a  tall  house, 

I  will  build  my  house  of  sticks." 

Then  little  pig  Two  built  a  tall  house  of  sticks. 

One  day  the  wolf  came  to  the  house  of  sticks. 
The  wolf  knocked  at  the  door  and  said, 
"Little  pig,  little  pig,"  etc. 

So  the  wolf  huffed  and  puffed  and  blew  in  the  house  of  sticks 
and  ate  up  little  pig  Two. 

Little  pig  Three  found  some  stone. 
Little  pig  Three  said, 
"This  stone  will  make  a  strong  house; 
I  will  build  my  house  of  stone." 


i8o  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

The  little  pig  worked  one  day. 

He  worked  two  days. 

He  worked  three  days. 

Then  the  house  of  stone  was  built. 

The  wolf  came  to  the  stone  house. 
He  knocked  at  the  door. 
Wolf.    Little  pig,  httle  pig, 
Let  me  come  in. 

Pig.        No,  no,  by  the  hair 

Of  my  chinny-chin-chin. . 

WOLP.    Then  I'U  huff  and  I'll  puff 
And  I  '11  blow  your  house  in. 

Pig.        You  may  h  uff  and  puff,  but  you  will  not 
blow  my  house  in. 

The  wolf  huffed  and  puffed  and  puffed  and  huffed,  but  he 
did  not  blow  in  the  strong  house  of  stone. 

The  same  story  in  the  following  form,  with  much  of  the      "' 
direct  discourse  and  with  all  needless  and  monotonous 
repetition  omitted,  is  much  more  suitable  for  silent  reading 
class  drill. 


THE  THREE  LITTLE  PIGS 
I 

Once  there  was  a  mother  pig  with  three  little  pigs.  The 
pigs  were  named  One,  Two,  and  Three.  One  day  the  mother 
pig  told  them  to  go  find  some  work.  So  the  little  pigs  went  to 
find  work. 

n 

Each  little  pig  said  he  would  build  himself  a  house. 
Little  pig  One  said  he  would  build  himself  a  soft  house. 
Little  pig  Two  said  he  would  build  himself  a  tall  house. 
Little  pig  Three  said  he  would  build  himself  a  strong  house. 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     i8i 

III 

One  day  little  pig  One  found  some  straw.  The  straw  was 
soft.  It  would  make  a  soft  house.  So  little  jMg  One  built  a 
house  of  the  soft  straw. 

IV 

One  day  a  wolf  came  to  the  straw  house.    The  wolf  knocked 
at  the  door.    The  little  pig  ran  to  the  door.    The  wolf  said: 
"Little  pig,  httle  pig,  let  me  come  in." 
"No,  no,  by  the  hair  of  my  chinny-chin-chin." 
"Then  I'll  hull  and  I'll  puff  and  I'll  blow  your  house  in." 
Then  the  wolf  huffed  and  puffed  and  blew  in  the  straw  house 
and  ate  up  the  Httle  pig. 

V 
Little  pig  Two  found  some  sticks.     Sticks  will  not  make 
a  strong  house.     They  will  make  a  tall  house.     So  little  pig 
Two  built  a  tall  house  of  sticks. 

VI 

One  day  the  wolf  came  to  the  house  of  sticks.  He  knocked  at 
the  door  and  said: 

"Little  pig,  little  pig,"  etc. 

So  the  wolf  huffed  and  puffed  and  blew  in  the  house  of  sticks 
and  ate  up  little  pig  Two. 

VII 

Little  pig  Three  found  some  stones.  Stones  will  not  make  a 
soft  house  but  they  will  make  a  strong  one.  So  little  pig  Three 
built  his  house  of  stones.  He  worked  three  days  and  then 
the  house  of  stone  was  built. 

VIII 

The  wolf  came  to  the  stone  house.  He  knocked  at  the  door. 

"Little  pig,  little  pig,"  etc. 
The  wolf  huffed  and  puffed  and  puffed  and  huffed  but  he  did 
not  blow  in  the  strong  house  of  stone. 


i82  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

If  such  stories  could  be  printed  with  four  or  five  good 
questions  immediately  following  each  section,  so  much  the 
better.  The  teacher  would  then  be  furnished  with  test 
questions  which  she  might  not  have  the  ambition  to  pre- 
pare beforehand  for  herself.  If  the  teacher  makes  up  her 
questions  in  class,  much  time  is  usually  wasted  and  the 
questions  are  not  well  chosen.  All  new  words  in  each  story 
should  be  printed  at  the  beginning  of  the  story. 

Do  not  fear  for  an  instant  that  the  use  of  such  meta- 
morphosed (desiccated,  if  you  will)  stories  of  childhood 
will  result  in  less  interest  and  enthusiasm  on  the  part  of 
pupils.  What  is  lost  in  the  material  is  made  up  in  the 
method.  I  have  never  seen  anywhere  else  such  spon- 
taneous enthusiasm  as  is  evidenced  by  our  silent-reading 
classes,  providing  the  drill  is  properly  handled  and  the 
teacher  herself  shows  some  life  and  interest.  And  without 
an  interested  and  enthusiastic  teacher,  neither  material 
nor  method  of  any  sort  will  arouse  any  great  enthusiasm 
in  class  drill.  Several  times  have  pupils  complained  to  me 
that  their  teachers  were  not  carrying  on  the  reading  drill  as 
I  had  directed  and  demonstrated  in  the  presence  of  the 
children.  They  asked  me  to  try  to  have  her  do  so,  because 
they  thought  the  work,  as  I  presented  it,  was  so  much  more 
interesting.  These  complainants  were  not  first-grade 
pupils,  of  course. 

Still  better  would  be  some  books  based  on  historical  and 
geographical  facts  and  written  as  pure  exposition.  Ex- 
pository material  is  best  suited  to  silent-reading  drill. 
Only  very  elementary  facts  should  be  so  treated,  and  that 
in  the  simplest  possible  language.  With  the  use  of  such 
books  the  intensive  study  inherent  in  properly  conducted 
silent-reading  drill  would  make  the  reading  period  doubly 
valuable  because  the  children  would  be  acquiring  worth- 
while information  while,  at  the  same  time,  developing 
reading  ability. 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     183 

But  even  better  types  of  silent-reading  exercises  are 
possible,  especially  for  the  transition  from  the  quick-per- 
ception word  and  sentence  drills  to  book  material.  Books 
filled  largely  with  the  type  of  exercises  used  in  Haggerty's 
"  reading  test  "  for  primary  grades  would  be  excellent  to 
replace  the  ordinary  i)rimer  for  silent-reading  purposes. 
Some  of  this  material  is  reproduced  below.  ^ 


Put  a  stem  on  the  apple. 


Put  a  cross  on  the  ball. 


Put  a  ring  around  the  bee. 


Make  two  lines  under  the  horse. 
Put  a  cross  over  the  dog. 

Fig.  U 


•  From  Haggerly  Reading  Examination:  Sigma  i.     Copyright,  1921,  by  World 
Book  Company,  Yonkers-on-Hudson,  N.Y. 


i84  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Such  exercises  as  these  could  be  varied  with  action 
sentences  like  those  heretofore  suggested,  the  child  proving 
his  understanding  of  the  sentences  by  carrying  out  the 
actions  therein  described.  Such  action  sentences  should 
gradually  increase  in  length  and  difficulty  throughout  the 
book 

Questions  like  the  following  also  make  good  elementary 
silent-reading  exercises.  Here  the  child  reads  the  question 
silently  and  gives  his  answer  orally: 

1.  Can  a  chair  walk? 

2.  Is  four  more  than  two? 

3.  Have  all  girls  the  same  name? 

4.  Are  men  larger  than  boys? 

5.  Does  flour  come  from  milk? 

6.  Is  every  man  a  soldier? 

7.  Does  the  sun  rise  in  the  evening? 

Other  good  material  would  be  pictures  accompanied  by 
descriptions  or  little  stories  in  which  many  of  the  state- 
ments do  not  agree  with  the  pictured  facts.  My  meaning 
is  illustrated  below.  ^ 

One  day  when  Betty  and  Harry  were  playing  barefooted  in 
the  fields  with  their  dog  and  kittens,  they  found  a  mother  bird 
teaching  her  little  ones  to  fly.  This  picture  shows  the  children 
and  the  kittens  watching  the  birds.  The  four  little  birds  are 
sitting  in  a  row  on  the  fence  while  the  frightened  mother  bird 
flutters  about  below  them.  Both  children  are  very  still  so  as 
not  to  frighten  the  birds.  Harry  has  a  hoop  in  his  left  hand. 
His  right  hand  is  out  of  sight.  Betty's  hat  is  lying  on  the 
ground  by  her  feet.  In  front  of  the  kittens  are  two  tall  lilies. 
How  many  blossoms  have  the  HUes?  How  many  buds  have 
they?    What  is  the  dog  doing? 

1  The  illustration  is  from  the  Primer,  in  the  series  of  Riverside  Readers 
(Houghton  Mifflin  Company).  In  the  original  the  picture  is  in  two  colors.  As 
reproduced  here  it  is  reduced  one-fourth  in  size. 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     185 


Fig.  15 


The  pupils  read  the  description  or  story,  compare  its 
statements  with  the  facts  of  the  picture,  and  point  out 
errors.  Of  course  the  misstatements  cannot  be  indicated 
by  the  pupils  unless  they  understand  the  printed  thoughts. 


186  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

These  are  only  a  few  suggestions  of  the  possibilities  for 
efifective  devices  to  further  the  efficiency  of  silent-reading 
drill  in  the  first  grade. 

Reading  in  the  Second  Grade 

During  the  year  in  which  our  new  reading  program  was 
initiated,  we  were  confronted  with  almost  as  many  diffi- 
culties in  teaching  silent  reading  in  the  second  grade  as  we 
encountered  in  the  first  grade.  True,  the  children  aver- 
aged about  a  year  older  and  could  read  a  little  orally. 
That  is,  they  had  learned  to  recognize  a  considerable 
number  of  printed  words  and  to  pronounce  them  correctly. 
But  in  silent-reading  work  they  were  almost  as  helpless  as 
the  beginners.  In  some  respects  they  were  even  worse  off 
than  the  beginners.  They  had  already  formed  many  bad 
reading  habits.  Lip-movement  was  universal  when  they 
were  asked  to  read  silently.  Most  of  them  had  been 
taught  the  alphabet  as  the  first  step  in  learning  to  read, 
and  their  first  reading  drills  were  Hke  this,  each  pupil  in 
turn  standing  at  the  teacher's  knee  while  she  pointed  out 
the  words  for  him  one  at  a  time. 

S-e-e,  see;  t-h-e,  the;  c-a-t,  cat. 

H-e,  he;  i-s,  is;  a;  g-o-o-d,  good;  c-a-t,  cat. 

S-e-e,  see;  t-h-e,  the;  g-o-o-d,  good;  c-a-t,  cat;  r-u-n,  run. 

As  a  consequence  these  pupils  had  formed  the  habit  of 
spelling  each  word  before  they  could  pronounce  it.  It  was 
a  painful  sight  to  watch  them  trying  to  read  to  themselves 
at  their  seats,  spelling  out  each  word  letter  by  letter  and 
then  pronouncing  them  in  audible  whispers  as  they  pro- 
gressed with  the  end  of  their  forefinger  slowly  through  the 
short,  simple  sentences  in  a  first  reader.  The  teaching  of 
whole  words  and  sentences  by  quick-perception  methods, 
so  far  as  I  could  ascertain,  had  been  entirely  unknown  in 
the  schools  of  the  district. , 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     187 

These  bad  reading  habits,  formed  through  improper 
instruction  and  drill  without  due  regard  to  the  correct 
order  of  associations  which  I  have  mentioned,  more  than 
oflfset  what  little  oral-reading  ability  the  children  had  ac- 
quired their  first  year  in  school.  Such  habits  had  to  be 
broken  up  before  correct  ones  could  be  formed.  Therefore 
we  were  obliged  to  use  practically  the  same  methods  and 
materials  in  the  second  grade  as  in  the  first  grade  during 
the  first  year  of  silent-reading  work. 

But  the  next  year,  with  second  grades  made  up  mostly 
of  pupils  who  had  been  under  proper  reading  instruction 
from  the  first,  the  problem  was  much  simplified.  There 
were  few  normal  pupils  who  were  unable  to  read  rapidly 
and  with  comprehension  material  of  the  grade  of  difficulty 
found  in  ordinary  second  readers.  Accordingly,  there 
was  no  lack  of  reading  matter  for  the  work  in  this  grade. 
Second  and  third  readers  were  used  as  the  chief  sources  of 
material,  the  latter  during  the  last  half  of  the  year.  Eight 
to  ten  books  were  read  in  class  during  the  year  by  the  same 
methods  outlined  for  the  first  grade.  All  class  reading 
was  done  at  sight.  Pupils  were  not  permitted  to  have 
their  class  reading  books  at  their  seats.  Vocabulary- 
building  and  sentence-interpretation  drills  were  carried 
on  throughout  the  year  in  much  the  same  manner  as  de- 
scribed for  the  first  grade.  All  new  words  in  each  story 
were  thus  thoroughly  drilled  upon  before  the  story  itself 
was  attempted. 

Pronunciation  of  new  words  was  still  repressed  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year.  But  with  the  opening  of  the 
spring  term  oral-reading  practice  was  begun  because  of  the 
insistent  demands  of  the  teachers  who  feared  that  the 
children  would  never  learn  to  read  orally  if  they  were  con- 
fined too  long  and  too  exclusively  to  the  silent-reading 
drill.    The  oral  reading  was  begun  in  primers.    Much  to 


i88  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

the  surprise  of  some  of  the  teachers,  most  of  the  pupils 
could  read  very  well  indeed  and  could  pronounce  nearly 
every  word  correctly.  In  fact,  the  primer  material  proved 
so  easy  for  them  that  they  were  given  first  readers  after  a 
few  days,  and  it  was  found  that  they  could  read  nearly 
as  well  from  them  as  from  the  primers.  By  the  middle  of 
the  term  they  were  doing  good  work  in  second  readers. 
Throughout  the  spring  term  from  a  third  to  a  half  of  the 
reading  time  was  devoted  to  practice  in  oral  reading.  By 
the  end  of  the  year  the  majority  of  the  second-grade  pupils 
could  read  fluently  from  the  easier  third  readers.  In  the 
June  tests  more  than  fifty  per  cent  of  them  tested  third 
grade  or  better  in  silent-reading  abihty;  and  at  the  same 
time  they  could  read  orally  more  smoothly  and  with  better 
expression  than  could  many  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades. 
The  most  surprising  thing  about  this  sudden  introduc- 
tion to  oral  reading  was  the  ability  of  the  pupils  to  pro- 
nounce most  of  the  words  correctly,  although,  for  the  most 
part,  they  had  been  rigidly  restrained  from  pronouncing 
them  while  they  were  being  learned  in  class.  Yet  there 
was  really  nothing  to  be  wondered  at.  Even  to  beginners 
most  of  the  words  contained  in  the  lower-grade  readers  are 
familiar  in  their  vocal  forms  and  usually  also  in  their 
meanings.  The  pupils  had  had  nearly  two  years  of  inten- 
sive drill  in  the  direct  association  of  words  with  their  mean- 
ings, so  that  when  they  saw  a  printed  word  it  was  instantly 
associated  with  its  meaning  and  the  next  instant  with  its 
vocal  form  with  which  they  were  already  familiar  before 
they  ever  tried  to  read.  Most  of  the  hesitation  and 
stumbHng  by  the  pupil  in  oral  reading  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  he  does  not  know  the  meanings  of  the  "  hard  "  words 
and  is  trying  to  recall  imperfectly  formed  associations  be- 
tween meaningless  visual  forms  and  their  respective  vocal 
forms.    For  instance,  a  child  comes  to  the  word  "  stove  " 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     189 

in  his  reading.  He  does  not  connect  it  in  his  mind  with  any 
vocal  form  or  with  any  familiar  object.  In  other  words, 
the  word  has  no  meaning  for  him.  He  hesitates,  stumbles 
over  it,  and  guesses  at  it.  Then  the  teacher  pronounces  it 
for  him  and  he  reads  on.  The  next  day  the  teacher  pro- 
nounces it  for  him  again.  After  several  such  pronuncia- 
tions by  the  teacher,  he  may  make  permanent  association 
between  the  printed  and  spoken  forms  of  the  word. 

Now,  if  the  first  time  the  word  was  met  with,  the  teacher 
had  pointed  out  a  stove  or  shown  the  child  a  picture  of  one, 
he  could  instantly  have  pronounced  the  word  without  the 
slightest  trouble.  It  was  not  the  pronunciation  of  the 
word  that  needed  to  be  taught,  but  its  meaning  as  asso- 
ciated with  its  visual  form.  Hence  these  second-grade 
children,  with  very  little  or  no  previous  practice  in  oral 
reading,  could  read  well  orally  because  they  had  learned  to 
associate  the  printed  words  directly  with  the  ideas  which 
they  represent.  The  spoken  names  of  the  ideas  had  been 
already  acquired  when  they  learned  to  talk,  so  that  the 
vocal  forms  came  spontaneously  as  fast  as  they  recognized 
the  meaning  of  the  printed  words.  With  such  a  founda- 
tion of  vocabulary  knowledge  to  build  upon,  oral-reading 
ability  developed  very  rapidly  with  practice. 

And  since,  with  children  so  trained,  understanding 
precedes  oral  expression,  they  put  intelligent  expression 
into  their  reading  almost  as  naturally  as  they  do  into  their 
speaking.  There  was  absolutely  no  doubt  but  that  at  the 
end  of  the  year  they  were  able  to  read  orally  as  well  as  or 
better  than  most  second-grade  pupils.  Their  silent-read- 
ing ability  has  already  been  noted.  So  there  seems  to  have 
been  nothing  lost  and  much  gained  by  postponing  oral 
reading  until  the  latter  part  of  the  second  year.  It  is  quite 
probable  that  nothing  would  have  been  lost  if  oral  read- 
ing had  been  postponed  until  the  last  half  of  the  third  year. 


I90  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

At  any  rate,  the  fears  of  the  teachers  that  the  children 
would  not  learn  to  read  orally  having  been  mostly  allayed 
by  this  experience,  our  next  class  will  not  begin  oral  reading 
until  the  third  year. 

Considerable  unsupervised  silent  reading  was  done  at 
the  seats  during  the  second  year.  The  children  fairly  rev- 
eled in  the  stories  and  pictures  in  the  primers  and  first 
readers  which  by  this  time  most  of  them  could  read  with 
ease.  They  read  them  over  and  over  at  their  seats. 
Nearly  every  day  some  of  them  were  permitted  to  tell  to 
teacher  and  classmates  some  story  thus  read.  The  ten  to 
twelve  new  sets  of  primers  and  first  readers  in  each  school 
furnished  ample  material  for  seat  work  in  silent  reading. 

Although  of  necessity  the  literary  contents  of  second  and 
third  readers  furnished  most  of  the  drill  material  in  this 
grade,  nevertheless,  we  were  not  wholly  confined  to  them. 
Some  informational  matter  was  simple  enough  to  be  avail- 
able. For  instance,  toward  the  end  of  the  year  it  was 
found  possible  to  utilize  to  good  advantage  the  James  Otis 
Colonial  Series  of  historical  readers  in  some  of  the  schools. 
Among  the  titles  of  this  series  are  Mary  of  Plymouth  and 
Ruth  of  Boston.  In  these  books  colonial  life  is  pictured  as 
the  background  for  imaginary  biographies  of  typical  boys 
and  girls  of  the  colonial  period.  Carpenter's  Around  the 
World  with  the  Children  is  another  book  with  real  content 
value  that  is  simple  enough  for  use  in  this  grade.  Most  of 
the  material  available  for  second  grade  is,  however,  of  the 
purely  literary  type  which,  as  has  been  said,  is  least  suit- 
able and  least  valuable  for  silent-reading  class  drill.  The 
lack  of  simple,  accurate  informational  reading  matter  is 
felt  almost  as  strongly  in  the  second  grade  as  in  the  first. 

Reading  in  the  Third  Grade 

With  the  beginning  of  the  third  year,  our  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  teaching  silent  reading  rapidly  diminish.     With 


SILENT  READING  IN  LOWER  GRADES     191 

independent  reading  ability  already  acquired  through  two 
years  of  intensive  silent-reading  drill  and  vocabulary- 
building,  it  is  mostly  a  matter  of  more  practice  and  more 
vocabulary-building  with  the  advantage  of  a  much  wider 
range  of  reading  material  which  can  be  adapted  to  class 
drill  by  the  wide-awake  and  industrious  teacher. 

The  same  sort  of  vocabulary-building  drill  through  the 
use  of  quick -perception  cards,  with  the  meanings  of  new 
words  explained  by  means  of  objects,  pictures,  or  illustra- 
tive actions,  should  be  continued  through  at  least  a  part  of 
this  year.  The  many  new  words  found  in  the  supple- 
mentary reading  books  available  for  this  grade,  especially 
those  of  informational  content,  offer  ample  material  for 
vocabulary-building.  There  are  a  great  many  words  used 
in  historical,  geographical,  and  nature  readers  that  are  not 
usually  found  in  the  literary  readers.  If  the  more  common 
of  these  words  are  made  a  permanent  part  of  the  child's 
reading  vocabulary  at  this  time,  he  will  be  that  much 
better  equipped  to  do  good  work  in  history  and  geography 
later  on.  A  large  part  of  the  difhculty  experienced  by 
pupils  in  learning  their  lessons  in  the  content  subjects  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  do  not  know  the  meanings  of 
words.  In  fact  poor  reading  and  ineffective  study  is 
largely  due  to  lack  of  word  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the 
reader.  Hence  my  insistence  on  a  type  of  vocabulary- 
building  drill  that  will  give  the  child  as  early  as  possible  a 
large  stock  of  words  properly  and  permanently  associated 
with  their  respective  meanings. 

There  are  a  large  number  of  books  now  on  the  market 
which  treat  of  historical  and  geographical  facts  in  an  inter- 
esting manner  and  which  are  not  too  difficult  for  third- 
year  classes.  More  are  appearing  every  year  in  response 
to  the  rapidly  increasing  demands  for  supplementary  read- 
ing of  this  nature. 


192  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Oral  reading  is  not  neglected  in  the  third  grade,  but  it  is 
mostly  intensive  rather  than  extensive.  Its  chief  purpose 
is  conceived  to  be  the  development  of  habits  of  clear  enun- 
ciation and  articulation.  I  would  rather  have  a  pupil  read 
one  paragraph  well  with  every  word  pronounced  clearly 
and  distinctly  than  to  have  him  read  a  whole  story  care- 
lessly, slurring  and  clipping  his  words.  We  must  remember 
that "  oral  reading  "  is  really  practice  in  speaking  and  that, 
imless  oral-reading  drill  leads  (or  drives)  the  pupil  to  form 
good  habits  of  speech,  it  is  time  largely  wasted. 

I  know  full  well  that  throughout  this  discussion  I  have 
been  flying  in  the  face  of  well-established  customs  and 
traditions  pertaining  to  reading  aims  and  reading  methods 
and  in  the  face  of  some  quite  recently  accepted  conclusions 
in  regard  to  the  teaching  of  reading.  But  this  is  not  an 
exposition  of  theory,  so  much  as  it  is  a  narration  of  actual 
experience.  Changes  of  method  in  the  teaching  of  reading 
were  suggested  and  shown  to  be  necessary  by  the  results  of 
the  first  silent-reading  tests.  The  changes  made  and 
herein  described  are  based  mainly  on  two  things:  (i)  The 
aim  to  develop  efficient  readers  in  the  shortest  possible 
time,  and  (2)  the  generally  accepted  psychological  princi- 
ples of  association  and  memory  set  forth  in  this  and  pre- 
ceding chapters. 

We  have  found  our  methods  good.  We  have  proved,  to 
our  own  satisfaction  at  least,  that  they  will  produce  results 
in  actual  practice.  We  are  doing  what  we  set  out  to  do, 
that  is,  we  are  developing  in  three  or  four  years  reading 
abihty  as  good  as  or  better  than  the  ability  ordinarily  de- 
veloped in  the  same  schools  in  five  or  six  years.  We  may, 
of  course,  be  losing  some  things  of  value  which  are  derived 
from  other  methods;  but  we  are  at  least  getting  as  a  rec- 
ompense real  reading  efl&ciency  in  most  of  our  schools. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

Reading  as  a  Separate  Subject  should  not  be 
Necessary  in  the  Upper  Grades 

During  the  first  year  of  the  new  regime  upper-grade  read- 
ing presented  some  problems  all  its  own.  It  should  not 
have  been  necessary  to  teach  reading  as  a  separate  subject 
above  the  third  grade;  and  probably  it  would  not  have 
been  necessary,  if  during  the  first  three  years  the  children 
had  been  given  efficient  instruction  and  drill.  In  general 
it  may  be  said  that  if,  by  the  end  of  the  third  year,  the 
mechanics  of  reading  have  been  acquired  to  the  extent  that 
they  may  be,  all  that  the  pupil  ought  to  need  thereafter  is 
continuous  practice  on  material  of  increasing  difficulty; 
and  that  practice  can  be  arranged  for  (a)  in  connection 
with  other  subjects  and  (b)  by  much  assigned  silent-reading 
work  to  be  done  at  seat  or  at  home.  Extensive  silent 
reading  done  at  home  or  at  seat  will  undoubtedly  help  to 
improve  reading  ability  through  practice.  This  procedure, 
however,  is  far  too  slow  and  unreliable.  Intensive  drill  in 
silent  reading  should  undoubtedly  continue  throughout  the 
grades.  If  such  drill  is  not  given  in  connection  with  other 
subjects,  then  it  should  surely  be  given  a  place  of  its  own 
in  the  program.  The  fact  that  efficient  reading  practice 
can  be  given  in  connection  with  other  subjects  is  no  guar- 
antee that  it  will  be  so  given  unless  definite  arrangements 
are  made  for  it.  It  has  been  my  experience  that  any  line 
of  work  not  specifically  provided  for  in  the  daily  schedule, 
with  a  time  allotment  of  its  own,  is  pretty  sure  to  be  neg- 
lected unless  it  happens  to  be  a  hobby  of  the  teacher. 


194  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Local  Conditions  Required  Vigorous  Action 

At  any  rate,  in  our  situation  if  existing  conditions  were  to 
be  remedied  to  any  appreciable  extent  by  the  end  of  the 
year,  it  was  necessary  to  provide  for  much  systematic  and 
intensive  drill  in  reading  for  the  upper  grades.  Pupils  old 
enough  for  the  third  and  fourth  grade  were  unable  to  read 
as  well  as  beginning-second-grade  pupils  ought  to  be  able 
to  read.  More  than  half  the  pupils  in  the  other  grades 
were  from  two  to  four  grades  below  normal.  Strong  reme- 
dial measures  were  therefore  essential  if  the  schools  were 
to  be  brought  up  to  the  test  standards  within  a  reasonable 
length  of  time. 

The  Plan 

Accordingly,  it  was  decided  to  have  special  reading 
classes  for  the  upper  grades.  For  this  purpose  the  upper- 
grade  pupils  in  each  school  were  divided  into  two  groups. 
In  general  the  pupils  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades  formed 
one  group  and  those  of  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth 
grades  made  up  the  other.  In  some  schools  it  was  found 
necessary  to  include  the  sixth  grade  in  the  lower  group. 
In  most  schools  the  best  readers  of  the  fifth  grade  worked 
with  the  higher  group,  while  the  poorest  readers  of  the 
higher  grades  worked  with  the  lower  group.  In  this  way 
two  groups  of  fairly  uniform  reading  ability  were  secured, 
so  that  separate  reading  classes  for  each  grade  were  un- 
necessary. Then,  partly  by  cutting  down  the  dispro- 
portionately large  amount  of  time  customarily  devoted 
to  arithmetic  and  partly  by  utilizing  to  a  large  extent 
the  subject-matter  and  supplementary  reading  of  other 
subjects  for  our  silent-reading  material,  we  managed  to 
squeeze  out  of  our  congested  eight-grade,  one-teacher 
programj  two  fifteen-minute  reading  periods  per  day  for 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        195 

each  of  these  groups.  This  is  of  course  double  the  amount 
of  time  that  ordinarily  need  be  devoted  to  special  reading 
drill  in  these  grades. 

And  this  was  not  all.  Much  of  the  class  work  in  geog- 
raphy and  history  was  so  conducted  as  to  furnish  the  best 
kind  of  silent-reading  drill,  so  that  all  told  the  upper  grades 
had  from  forty-five  minutes  to  an  hour  of  intensive  reading 
drill  nearly  every  day.  In  our  case  the  importance  of  the 
subject  and  the  existing  low  level  of  efficiency  demanded 
that  strenuous  measures  be  taken. 

That  these  measures  were  effective  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  at  the  end  of  the  same  year  nearly  ninety  per  cent  of 
all  mentally  normal  pupils  had  attained  to  grade  standards. 
Most  of  those  who  were  not  up  to  standard  in  the  June 
tests  were  pupils  in  the  three  or  four  schools  where  the  plan 
was  not  efficiently  carried  out  because  of  lack  of  interest 
or  adaptabihty  on  the  part  of  the  teachers. 

After  considerable  experimenting  our  special  reading 
schedule  for  the  upper  grades  evolved  into  something  like 
this: 

SILENT-READING  SCHEDULE  FOR  UPPER  GRADES 


Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Tkurs. 

Fri. 

Grades 
4&S 

A.M. 
P.M. 

History 
Literature 

Phys.&Hyg. 
Geog. 

Geog. 
History 

Civics 
Literature 

Manners  and 
Conduct 

Current 
Events 

Grades 
6,7&8 

A.M. 
P.M. 

History 
Literature 

Phys.&Hyg. 
Geog. 

Geog. 
Civics 

Civics 
History 

Manners  and 
Conduct 

Current 
Events 

196  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Character  of  the  Reading  Material 

The  types  of  reading  material  used  in  carrying  out  this 
schedule  were  principally  as  follows: 

History.  In  the  upper  grades,  besides  regular  American 
history  texts,  we  used  books  hke  Tappan's  Our  European 
Ancestors,  Ettgland's  Story,  Story  of  the  Greek  People,  Story 
of  the  Roman  People,  Guerber's  Story  of  the  Chosen  People, 
Coe's  Makers  of  the  Nation,  etc.  For  silent-reading  mate- 
rial in  history  for  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades  we  used  vari- 
ous books  of  American  and  Old- World  hero  stories,  myths, 
and  fables.  No  other  class  work  in  history  was  done  in 
these  grades. 

In  all  grades  the  customary  question-and-answer  recita- 
tion was  entirely  replaced  by  this  silent-reading  work  re- 
viewed by  fortnightly  oral  or  written  tests  on  the  subject- 
matter  covered  during  the  preceding  two  weeks.  The 
time  usually  devoted  to  seat  study  of  history  was  given 
over  to  reading  other  of  the  many  books  of  myths  and  hero 
tales,  stories  of  pioneer  and  colonial  life,  and  Indian 
legends  recommended  for  supplementary  reading  in  his- 
tory, especially  in  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades. 

Geography.  The  geographical  reading  material  con- 
sisted for  the  most  part  of  one  of  the  several  excellent 
series  of  geographical  supplementary  readers  now  pub- 
lished. The  very  complete  lists  of  well-chosen  review 
questions  given  in  some  of  these  books  make  them  particu- 
larly well  adapted  to  the  type  of  silent-reading  drill  wherein 
the  teacher  asks  questions  while  the  children  read  to  find 
the  answers.     This  method  was  described  in  chapter  xii. 

Physiology  and  Hygiene.  Books  of  the  Woods  Hutch- 
inson Health  Series  and  Ritchie's  Primers  of  Physiology, 
Hygiene,  and  Sanitation,  were  used.  Silent-reading  drill 
from  these  books  together  with  occasional  discussion  and 


V 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        197 

periodical  tests  by  way  of  review,  comprised  all  the  book 
work  given  in  physiology  and  hygiene.  A  part  of  the  work 
was  seat  work,  the  children  being  assigned  a  topic  with 
a  list  of  questions  to  cover  it  and  being  required  to  find 
and  write  the  answers  to  the  questions. 

Civics.  Modern  texts  emphasizing  community  civics 
were  used  for  silent-reading  class  drill  and  supplemented 
by  discussions  of  local  community  problems.  This  cov- 
ered all  the  work  required  in  the  line  of  civics. 

Literature.  Reading  material  for  these  periods  was  taken 
from  whatever  suitable  books  were  available  in  the  differ- 
ent schools.  The  reading  was  done  orally  with  particular 
attention  to  securing  as  far  as  possible  a  real  audience 
situation  for  the  reader.  The  book  in  the  hands  of  the 
reader  was  the  only  one  used  in  the  class.  The  rest  of  the 
class,  with  the  teacher,  made  up  the  audience. 

According  to  this  method  the  pupil  who  does  the  reading 
stands  in  front  of,  and  facing,  the  class;  and  after  reading 
about  a  page  he  takes  his  seat.  Then  the  teacher  calls 
upon  some  member  of  the  class  to  tell  in  his  own  words  the 
part  of  the  story  just  read.  Then  another  pupil  is  called 
upon  to  go  on  with  the  reading.  Since  neither  teacher  nor 
classmates  have  any  books  to  look  at  and  must  therefore 
depend  entirely  on  the  reader  for  the  author's  thoughts, 
the  reader  has  every  incentive  to  do  his  best.  The  device 
of  calling  upon  another  pupil  to  reproduce  what  has  been 
read  tests  that  pupil's  understanding  of  the  passage,  en- 
sures the  attention  of  the  whole  class  to  what  is  being  read, 
since  none  of  them  know  which  one  is  going  to  be  called 
upon  to  recite,  and  tends  to  develop  a  habit  of  giving  strict 
attention  to  the  words  of  a  reader  or  a  speaker  —  a  thing 
of  no  little  importance  in  itself. 

Manners  and  conduct.  McVenn's  Good  Manners  and 
Right  Conduct  was  read  either  silently  or  orally.     Discus- 


198  STANDARDIZED  TESTS  . 

sions  were  held  only  when  the  pupils  themselves  wished 
to  "  start  something."  The  danger  of  mere  discussion  by 
the  teacher  lies  in  making  the  "  morals  "  of  the  stories  too 
obvious. 

Current  events.  This  consisted  of  oral  reading  in  class 
of  interesting  and  informational  (not  merely  sensational 
or  funny)  items  from  the  news  of  the  day. 

The  Books  Mentioned  are  Merely  Suggestive 

The  particular  titles  mentioned  on  the  foregoing  pages  are 
not  listed  as  being  those  of  the  best  books  available  for 
silent-reading  purposes,  but  are  merely  suggestive,  of  the 
types  of  books  now  available  that  are  best  suited  and  most 
valuable  for  the  kind  of  intensive  silent-reading  drill  that 
will  develop  habits  of  efficient  study.  Until  we  have  real 
silent-reading  textbooks,  with  material  properly  and  spe- 
cially organized  to  aid  in  developing  the  several  phases  of 
silent-reading  ability,  we  cannot  do  better  than  utilize  for 
our  purposes  good  textbooks  and  supplementary  readers 
rich  in  content  value.  Such  books  as  the  various  geo- 
graphical, industrial,  nature,  and  science  readers,  together 
with  regular  textbooks  in  the  content  subjects,  represent  the 
very  best  all-around  silent-reading  material  yet  available. 
By  the  use  of  such  books  we  are  killing  at  least  three 
birds  with  one  stone.  We  are  getting  our  supplementary 
reading  done  in  such  a  way  that  the  children  will  derive 
some  benefit  from  it;  we  are  developing  the  most  valuable 
kind  of  reading  ability;  and  we  are  supplying  the  children 
with  a  broad  range  of  valuable  information.  Moreover, 
that  information  is  presented  to  them  under  just  the 
psychological  conditions  that  make  for  retention.  The 
concentration  forced  upon  the  pupil  by  the  right  kind  of 
silent-reading  drill  is  the  best  guarantee  that  the  material 
read  will  be  remembered  as  well  as  understood. 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        199 

Why  Literature  is  not  Adapted  for  Silent-Reading 

Drill 

This  suggests  one  of  the  principal  reasons  why  literature 
does  not  furnish  the  best  kind  of  drill  material.  It  is  not 
only  difficult  to  test  the  pupil's  comprehension  of  material 
which  has  been  read  silently;  but  it  is  also  inappropriate  to 
devote  to  such  material  the  intensive  study  inherent  in 
properly  conducted  silent-reading  drill.  The  chief  aim  in 
the  reading  of  literature  is  appreciation,  not  the  develop- 
ment of  reading  ability,  and  the  intensive  drill  and  thor- 
ough testing  for  comprehension  connected  with  silent- 
reading  lessons  is  not  conducive  to  appreciation  of  the 
literary  merits  of  the  selections  read. 

Probably  literary  appreciation  can  be  best  developed 
through  extensive  reading  of  good  Hterature  outside  the 
class.  Literary  appreciation  is  something  that  grows  upon 
one  principally  through  acquaintance  and  constant  asso- 
ciation with  good  literature.  I  doubt  if  the  teacher  can 
do  much  toward  developing  it  beyond  furnishing  an  en- 
vironment of  good  books  and  encouraging  the  children  to 
read  them  on  their  own  initiative.  If  she  has  to  lead  up  to 
the  habit  of  reading  and  liking  good  literature  through 
getting  the  children  at  first  to  read  something  that  is  not  so 
good,  she  should  not  be  discouraged  nor  shrink  from  the 
process.  The  first  thing  is  to  give  the  children  the  ability 
to  read  easily  and  understandingly.  The  next  thing  is  to 
get  them  to  read  willingly  almost  anything  that  is  not 
positively  harmful.  What  if  their  tastes  do  incline  at  first 
toward  *'  blood  and  thunder,"  crude  humor,  or  cheap 
sentimentalism?  If  you  can  once  get  them  into  the  read- 
ing habit,  you  may  be  able  to  lead  them  to  something 
better;  but  if  you  cannot  get  them  to  read  at  all  except 
under  compulsion,  you  stand  little  chance  of  developing 
much  literary  appreciation  in  them. 


eoo  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Certainly  it  cannot  be  developed  through  the  medium 
of  the  microscopical  dissecting  exercises  usually  considered 
essential  to  the  teaching  of  literature  for  appreciation. 
Here  is  a  chance  for  the  anti-vivisectionists  to  function  for 
the  good  of  society  in  general  and  suffering  school  children 
in  particular  —  that  is,  in  connection  with  the  murderous 
and  cruel  dissecting,  under  the  hands  of  misguided  teach- 
ers, of  the  living,  throbbing,  emotional  gems  of  English 
literature. 

Some  who  read  this  book  will  probably  criticize  the  idea 
of  a  reading  program  and  a  reading  method  so  bare  of 
opportunities  to  develop  appreciation  of  good  literature. 
But  remember  my  aim  is  not  to  develop  literary  apprecia- 
tion, but  to  develop  reading  ability.  Literary  apprecia- 
tion has  no  necessary  connection  with  such  an  aim.  The 
only  connection  there  is  between  literary  appreciation  and 
reading  ability  is  that  the  former  is  almost  entirely  de- 
pendent on  the  latter.  Therefore  the  sooner  the  latter  is 
acquired,  the  sooner  can  the  former  become  a  possibility. 
Let  me  repeat.  The  study  of  literature  has  no  necessary 
connection  with  the  development  of  reading  ability.  It  is 
beginning  to  be  evident  that  it  has  no  profitable  connection 
with  it  from  the  point  of  view  of  reading  efficiency.  Hence, 
if  literary  material  is  not  suitable  for  use  in  developing  the 
kind  of  reading  ability  that  we  want  to  develop  (and  must 
develop,  if  our  schools  are  to  be  truly  efficient),  then  let  us 
relegate  such  material  to  its  proper  place,  namely,  the 
study  of  literature,  while  we  go  ahead  and  teach  reading 
with  the  best  type  of  material  we  can  find  for  the  purpose. 

The  Kind  of  Material  Needed  for  Silent  Reading 

For  the  upper  grades  as  well  as  for  the  lower  grades  we  are 
greatly  in  need  of  books  with  informational  content  espe- 
cially organized  and  arranged  into  silent-reading  exercises 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        201 

and  accompanied  by  teachers'  manuals  giving  explicit 
instructions  for  the  treatment  of  each  lesson.  I  know  of 
but  two  attempts  so  far  to  produce  books  specially  de- 
signed to  aid  in  the  development  of  real  silent-reading 
ability.  These  attempts  have  resulted  in  the  placing  of 
two  sets  of  "  Silent  Readers  "  on  the  market  within  the 
past  year.  The  Bolenius  Readers  are  well  designed  and 
go  far  toward  filling  the  great  need  of  material  properly 
arranged  for  silent-reading  class  drill.  It  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  improve  upon  them  as  mediums  of  development  of 
certain  phases  of  silent-reading  ability  or  in  their  mode  of 
presenting  narrative  material  for  silent-reading  purposes. 
But  they  do  not  sufficiently  present  the  type  of  reading 
material  which  the  pupils  meet  in  studying  their  daily 
lessons  in  history,  geography,  physiology,  civics,  etc.  The 
special  vocabularies  of  these  studies  contain  great  numbers 
of  words  not  found  in  ordinary  narrative  material.  Hence 
the  Bolenius  Readers  need  to  be  supplemented  by  class 
reading  drill  in  material  similar  to  that  found  in  the  con- 
tent subjects  of  the  elementary  school. 

The  other  series  of  readers,  besides  containing  a  pre- 
ponderance of  narrative  material,  is  scarcely  more  adapted 
to  silent-reading  class  drill  than  is  the  ordinary  literary 
reader  since  only  a  few  of  the  selections  are  accompanied 
by  adequate  and  specific  instructions  or  devices  for  testing 
comprehension.  Scattered  throughout  each  book,  how- 
ever, are  a  few  exercises  of  real  value;  but  most  of  them  are 
designed  for  seat  work,  rather  than  for  class  drill. 

Some  examples  of  good  selections  for  silent  reading  are 
reproduced  below : 

EXERCISE  I 

(Material  selected  from  Tappan's  Diggers  in  the  Earth,  and 
arranged  for  intensive  study,  paragraph  by  paragraph.  The 
first  number  at  the  end  of  each  paragraph  or  section  is  the 


202  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

number  of  words  in  the  section.  The  number  in  parentheses 
is  the  total  number  of  words  in  the  exercise  up  to  the  end  of 
that  particular  paragraph.) 

Directions:  Let  the  class  read  the  first  question  under 
section  I.  Then  see  who  in  the  class  can  find  the  answer  first. 
Then  take  the  second  question,  and  so  on.  The  whole  exercise 
can  be  assigned  as  seat  work,  but  in  that  case  a  time  Umit 
should  be  assigned.  As  seat  work  the  answers  to  the  questions 
should  be  written  out  and  passed  in  by  the  pupils  or  rapidly 
corrected  in  class. 

AT  THE  GOLD  DIGGINGS 
Section  I 

When  gold  was  first  discovered  in  California,  in  1848,  people 
from  all  over  the  world  made  a  frantic  rush  to  get  there,  every 
one  of  them  hoping  that  he  would  be  lucky  enough  to  make  his 
fortune,  and  fearing  lest  the  precious  metal  should  be  gone 
before  he  could  even  begin  to  dig.  The  gold  that  these  men 
gathered  came  from  what  were  called  "placers";  that  is, 
masses  of  gravel  and  sand  along  the  beds  of  mountain  streams. 
Each  miner  had  a  pan  of  tin  or  iron,  which  he  filled  half  full  of 
the  gravel,  or  "  pay  dirt,"  as  the  miners  called  it.  Then,  hold- 
ing it  under  water,  he  shook  off  the  mud  and  stones  over  the 
side  of  the  pan,  leaving  grains  of  gold  mixed  with  black  sand 
at  the  bottom.  This  black  sand  was  iron,  and  after  a  while 
the  miners  removed  it  with  a  magnet,  dried  what  remained, 
and  blew  away  the  dust,  leaving  only  the  grains  of  gold. 
162 

1.  What  happened  in  1848? 

2.  Why  did  so  many  people  rush  to  California  when  they 
heard  the  news? 

3.  Why  were  they  in  such  a  hurry  to  get  there? 

4.  What  are  "placers"? 

5.  What  is  "pay  dirt"? 

6.  How  did  the  miners  separate  the  gold  from  the  gravel? 

7.  What  was  left  in  the  pan  besides  gold? 

8.  How  did  they  get  rid  of  the  iron? 

9.  How  did  they  get  rid  of  the  dust? 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES       203 

Section  II 

Another  contrivance  which  soon  came  into  use  was  the 
"  cradle."  This  was  a  long  box,  sometimes  only  a  hoUowed-out 
log.  At  the  top  was  a  sieve  which  sifted  out  the  stones.  Nailed 
to  the  bottom  of  the  cradle  were  small  cleats  of  wood,  or 
"riffles,"  which  kept  the  water  from  running  so  fast  as  to  sweep 
the  gold  out  of  the  cradle  with  it.  The  cradle  was  placed  on 
rockers  and  also  tilted  slightly.  The  miner  shoveled  the  gravel 
into  the  top  of  the  cradle  and  his  partner  rocked  it.  The  sieve 
kept  back  the  stones,  the  water  broke  up  the  lumps  of  earth 
and  gravel  and  washed  them  down  the  cradle,  and  the  grains 
of  gold  were  stopped  by  the  riffles,  and  sank  to  the  bottom. 
Sometimes  the  "pay  dirt"  continued  under  a  stream.  To  get 
at  it,  the  miners  often  built  a  little  canal  and  turned  the  water 
into  a  new  channel;  then  they  could  work  on  the  former  bed 
of  the  river. 
166  (328) 

1.  What  was  the  miner's  "  cradle"  ? 

2.  What  were  the  riffles  and  what  were  they  for? 

3.  Explain  how  the  gold  was  separated  from  the  gravel  by 
means  of  a  cradle? 

4.  When  the  streak  of  pay  dirt  extended  under  a  stream  how 
did  the  miners  get  at  it? 

Section  III 

Before  many  years  had  passed  the  gold  that  was  near  the 
surface  had  been  gathered.  The  miners  then  followed  the 
streams  up  into  the  mountains,  and  found  that  much  of  the 
gold  had  come  from  beds  where  in  ancient  times  rivers  had 
flowed.  There  was  gold  still  remaining  in  these  beds,  but  it 
was  poorly  distributed,  the  miners  thought.  Sometimes  there 
would  be  quite  an  amount  in  one  place,  and  then  the  miner 
would  dig  for  days  without  finding  any  more.  Even  worse 
than  this  was  the  fact  that  these  gravel  beds  were  not  on  the 
top  of  the  ground,  but  were  covered  up  with  soil  and  trees. 
Evidently  the  slow  work  with  pans  and  cradles  would  not 
pay  here;  but  it  occurred  to  some  one  that  if  a  powerful  stream 


204  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

of  water  could  be  directed  against  the  great  banks  of  earth, 
as  water  is  directed  against  a  burning  building,  they  would 
crumble,  the  dirt  could  be  washed  down  sluices,  and  the  gold 
be  saved.  This  was  done.  Great  reservoirs  were  built  high  up 
in  the  mountains,  and  water  was  brought  by  means  of  ditches 
and  pipes  to  a  convenient  place.  Then  it  was  allowed  to  rush 
furiously  through  a  hose  and  nozzle,  and  the  great  stream  com- 
ing with  tremendous  force  was  played  upon  the  banks  of  gravel. 
The  banks  crumbled,  the  gravel  was  washed  into  a  string  of 
sluices,  or  long  boxes  with  riffles  to  catch  the  gold.  Soon  the 
miners  found  that  if  quicksilver  was  put  into  these  sluices,  it 
would  unite  with  the  gold  and  form  a  sort  of  paste  called 
''amalgam."  Then  if  this  amalgam  was  heated,  the  quick- 
silver would  be  driven  off  in  the  form  of  gas,  and  the  gold  would 
remain  in  a  beautiful  yellow  mass. 
290  (618) 

1.  What  did  the  miners  do  when  the  placer  gold  gave  out? 

2.  What  did  they  find? 

3.  Find  two  reasons  why  the  slow  work  with  pan  or  cradle 
could  not  be  made  to  pay  in  working  these  new  gravel  beds. 

4.  What  plan  was  finally  adopted  for  getting  the  gold  from 
them? 

5.  How  did  they  get  the  necessary  water  pressure? 

6.  What  use  did  the  miners  discover  for  quicksilver? 

7.  How  was  the  gold  separated  from  the  quicksilver? 

Section  IV 

The  ancient  rivers  had  also  carried  gold  to  the  valleys,  and 
to  collect  this  a  dredge,  which  the  miners  called  a  "gold  ship," 
came  into  use.  The  "ship "  part  of  this  machine  is  an  immense 
flat  scow.  Stretching  out  from  one  end  is  something  which 
looks  like  a  moving  ladder.  This  is  the  support  of  an  endless 
chain  of  buckets,  each  of  which  can  bite  into  the  gravel  and 
take  a  mouthful  of  five  or  six  hundred  pounds.  They  drop  this 
gravel  into  a  big  drum  which  is  continually  revolving.  Water 
flows  through  the  drum,  and  washes  out  the  sand  and  bits  of 
gold  over  large  tables,  where  by  means  of  riflHes  and  quicksilver 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES       205 

the  gold  is  captured.  This  scow  was  usually  on  dry  land  at 
first;  but  its  digging  soon  made  a  lake,  and  then  it  floated.  It 
must  be  more  fascinating  to  hold  a  i)an  in  your  own  hands  and 
pick  out  Httle  grains  of  gold  or  perhaps  even  a  big  piece  of  it 
with  your  own  lingers,  but  ii  the  gravel  is  good  the  dredge 
makes  more  money. 
181  (799) 

1.  Where  else  had  gold  been  carried  by  the  rivers? 

2.  What  is  another  name  for  the  dredge  used  in  working 
these  valley  gold  deposits? 

3.  By  what  means  is  the  gravel  taken  aboard  the  dredge? 

4.  What  is  said  of  the  amount  of  gravel  each  bucket  holds? 

5.  What  do  the  buckets  do  with  the  gravel  when  they  have 
brought  it  aboard? 

6.  How  is  the  gold  separated  from  the  gravel  in  this  method 
of  mining? 

7.  Is  the  dredging  begun  on  dry  land  or  on  a  lake  or  river? 

8.  Then  why  is  it  necessary  to  have  a  scow? 

Section  V 

In  Alaska  the  great  difficulty  in  mining  is  that,  except  at  the 
surface,  the  ground  is  frozen  all  the  year  round.  At  first,  the 
miners  used  to  thaw  the  place  where  they  wished  to  dig  by 
building  wood  fires;  but  this  was  a  slow  method,  and  now  the 
thawing  is  done  by  steam.  They  carry  the  steam  in  a  pipe  to 
the  place  where  the  digging  is  to  be  done,  and  send  it  through 
a  hose.  At  the  end  of  the  hose  is  a  pointed  steel  tube.  They 
hammer  this  tube  into  the  ground  and  let  some  steam  pass 
through  the  nozzle.  This  softens  the  ground  so  that  picks  and 
shovels  may  be  used.  There  is  generally  cold  enough  in  Alaska, 
but  once  at  least  the  miners  had  to  manufacture  it.  The  gold- 
bearing  gravel  was  deep,  the  ground  was  flat,  and  it  was  often 
overflowed.  They  set  up  a  freezing  plant,  and  shut  in  their 
land  with  a  bulkhead  of  ice  several  feet  thick.  Then  they 
pumped  out  what  water  was  already  in  and  did  their  work  with 
no  more  trouble. 
181  (9S0) 


2o6  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

1.  Why  is  mining  difficult  in  Alaska? 

2.  What  was  the  first  method  of  overcoming  this  difficulty? 

3.  How  is  it  done  now? 

4.  In  what  peculiar  way  was  one  mine  kept  from  being 
flooded? 

Section  VI 

When  gold  began  to  grow  less  in  the  California  gravel,  the 
miners  looked  for  it  in  the  rocks  on  the  mountain-side.  The 
placer  miners  laughed  at  them  and  called  their  shafts  "coyote 
holes";  but  in  time  the  placers  failed,  while  nearly  all  of  our 
gold  to-day  comes  from  veins  of  white  quartz  in  the  rocks. 
A  vein  of  gold  is  the  most  capricious  thing  in  the  world.  It 
may  be  so  tiny  that  it  can  hardly  be  seen,  then  widen  and  grow 
rich  in  gold,  then  suddenly  come  to  an  end.  This  is  why  a  new 
mine  is  so  uncertain  an  enterprise.  The  gold  may  hold  out 
and  bring  fortunes  to  the  investors,  or  it  may  fail,  and  then  all 
they  will  have  to  show  for  their  money  is  the  memory  that  they 
put  it  into  a  hole  in  the  ground.  The  managers  of  a  few  of  the 
well-established  mines,  however,  have  explored  so  far  as  to 
make  sure  that  there  is  gold  enough  for  many  years  of  digging. 
171  (1151) 

1.  Where  did  the  miners  next  look  for  gold? 

2.  Where  does  most  of  our  gold  come  from  at  present? 

3.  Why  is  a  new  mine  a  very  uncertain  enterprise  to  invest 
money  in? 

Section  VII 

The  mining  engineer  must  be  a  very  wide-awake  man.  It  is 
not  enough  for  him  simply  to  remember  what  was  taught  him 
in  the  schools  of  mining;  he  must  be  bright  enough  to  invent 
new  ways  of  meeting  difficulties.  No  two  mines  are  alike, 
and  he  must  be  ready  for  all  sorts  of  emergencies.  A  gold  mine 
now  consists  of  a  shaft  or  pit  dug  several  hundred  feet  down 
into  the  rock,  with  levels  or  galleries  running  off  from  it  and 
with  big  openings  like  rooms  made  where  the  rock  was  dug  out. 
The  roofs  of  the  rooms  are  supported  by  great  timbers.     To 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        207 

break  away  the  rock,  the  miner  makes  a  hole  with  a  rock  drill 
worked  by  electricity  or  compressed  air,  puts  powder  or  dyna- 
mite into  the  hole,  and  explodes  it.  The  broken  rock  is  then 
raised  to  the  surface  and  crushed  in  a  "stamping  mill."  Here 
the  ore  is  fed  into  a  great  steel  box  called  a  "mortar."  Five 
immense  hammers,  often  weighing  a  thousand  pounds  apiece, 
drop  down  upon  the  ore,  one  after  another,  until  it  is  fine 
enough  to  go  through  a  wire  screen  in  the  front  of  the  box. 
When  two  hundred  or  more  of  these  hammers  are  pounding 
away  with  all  their  might  a  stamping  mill  is  a  pretty  nois\- 
place.  The  ore,  crushed  to  a  fine  mud,  now  runs  over  sloping 
tables  covered  with  copper.  Sticking  to  the  top  of  the  copper 
is  a  film  of  quicksilver.  This  holds  fast  whatever  gold  there 
may  be  and  makes  an  amalgam,  which  is  scraped  off  from  time 
to  time,  and  the  quicksilver  is  driven  from  the  gold  by  heat. 
276  (1427) 

1.  What  sort  of  a  man  must  a  mining  engineer  be? 

2.  Why? 

3.  Describe  a  gold  mine. 

4.  What  is  timber  used  for  in  a  gold  mine? 

5.  How  is  the  gold-bearing  rock  broken  up? 

6.  What  is  done  with  it  after  bringing  it  to  the  surface? 

7.  Why  is  a  stamping  mill  a  noisy  place? 

8.  What  is  the  ore  like  when  it  leaves  the  stamping  mill? 

9.  How  is  the  gold  separated  from  it? 

10.  Of  what  use  is  quicksilver  in  the  process? 

Section  VIII 

Gold  that  is  not  united  with  other  metals  is  called  "free 
mining  gold."  Much  of  it,  however,  is  found  in  combination 
with  one  metal  or  another,  and  is  known  as  "rebellious"  or 
"refractory"  gold.  Such  gold  may  sometimes  be  set  free  by 
heat,  and  sometimes  by  chemicals.  One  way  is  by  the  use  of 
chlorine  gas,  and  the  story  of  it  sounds  almost  like  "The  house 
that  Jack  built."  It  might  run  somewhat  hke  this:  This  is  the 
salt  that  furnishes  the  chlorine.  This  is  the  chlorine  gas  that 
unites  with  the  gold.    This  is  the  chloride  that  is  formed  when 


208  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

the  chlorine  gas  unites  with  the  gold.  This  is  the  water  that 
washes  from  the  tank  the  chloride  that  is  formed  when  the 
chlorine  gas  unites  with  the  gold.  This  is  the  sulphate  of  iron 
that  unites  with  the  chlorine  gas  of  the  chloride  that  the  water 
washes  from  the  tank  that  is  formed  when  the  chlorine  gas 
unites  with  the  gold  —  and  leaves  the  gold  free. 
i68  (1595) 

1.  What  is  "free  milling  gold"? 

2.  What  is  "refractory"  gold? 

3.  What  are  two  ways  of  setting  free  refractory  gold? 

4.  What  is  the  chlorine  obtained  from? 

5.  What  does  it  unite  with? 

6.  What  substance  is  formed  when  this  union  takes  place? 

7.  What  part  does  water  take  in  the  process? 

8.  How  is  the  gold  finally  freed  from  the  chloride? 

Section  IX 

Another  method  is  by  the  use  of  cyanide.  More  than  a 
century  ago  a  chemist  discovered  that  if  gold  was  put  into 
water  containing  a  little  cyanide,  the  gold  would  dissolve,  while 
quartz  and  any  metals  that  might  be  united  with  the  gold  would 
settle  in  the  tank.  The  water  in  which  the  gold  is  dissolved  is 
now  run  into  boxes  full  of  shavings  of  zinc  and  is  "precipitated  " 
upon  them;  that  is,  the  tiny  particles  of  gold  in  the  water  fall 
upon  the  zinc  and  cling  to  it.  Zinc  melts  more  easily  than  gold, 
so  if  this  gilded  zinc  is  put  into  a  furnace,  the  zinc  melts  and  the 
gold  is  set  free.  Very  often  gold  is  found  combined  with  lead 
or  copper.  It  must  then  be  melted  or  smelted  in  great  furnaces. 
The  metal  is  heavier  than  the  rock  and  settles  to  the  bottom 
of  the  furnace.  It  is  then  drawn  off  and  the  gold  is  separated 
from  the  other  metals,  usually  by  electricity. 
165  (1760) 

1.  How  can  gold  be  dissolved  in  water? 

2.  After  being  dissolved,  how  is  the  gold  removed  from  the 
water? 

3.  Then  how  is  it  separated  from  the  zinc? 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES       209 

4.  What  two  metals  are  very  commonly  found  combined 
with  gold? 

5.  When  thus  found  how  is  the  gold  obtained? 

Section  X 

Sometimes  large  pieces  of  gold  called  "  nuggets  "  are  found  by 
miners.  The  largest  one  known  was  found  in  Australia.  It 
weighed  190  pounds  and  was  worth  $42,000.  Sometimes 
spongy  lumps  of  gold  are  found;  but  as  a  general  thing  gold 
comes  from  the  little  specks  scattered  through  veins  in  rock, 
and  much  work  has  to  be  done  before  it  can  be  made  into 
coins  or  jewelry.  It  is  too  soft  for  such  uses  unless  some  alloy, 
usually  copper  or  silver,  is  mixed  with  it  to  make  it  harder. 
Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  know  how  much  alloy  has  been 
added.  The  jeweler  then  makes  a  mark  with  the  article  on  a 
peculiar  kind  of  black  stone  called  a  "  touchstone,"  and  by  the 
color  of  the  golden  mark  he  can  tell  fairly  well  how  nearly  pure 
the  article  is.  To  be  more  accurate  he  pours  nitric  acid  upon 
the  mark.  This  eats  away  the  alloy  and  leaves  only  the  gold. 
159  (1919) 

1.  What  are  nuggets? 

2.  What  was  the  largest  one  ever  found? 

3.  How  much  was  it  worth? 

4.  Are  large  nuggets  common? 

5.  How  is  gold  usually  found? 

6.  Why  is  pure  gold  not  used  for  coins  and  jewelry? 

7.  How  is  it  made  harder? 

8.  How  can  a  jeweler  tell  how  much  alloy  has  been  added 
to  the  gold  in  any  article  made  of  gold? 

Section  XI 

Gold  is  a  wonderful  metal.  It  is  of  beautiful  color;  it  can  be 
hammered  so  thin  that  the  light  will  shine  through  it;  few 
acids  affect  it,  and  the  oxygen  which  eats  away  iron  does  not 
harm  it.  Pure  gold  is  spoken  of  as  being  "twenty-four  carats 
fine,"  from  carat,  an  old  weight  equal  to  one  twenty-fourth  of 


210  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

an  ounce  troy.  Watchcases  are  from  eight  to  eighteen  carats 
fine;  chains  are  seldom  more  than  fourteen;  and  the  gold  coins 
of  the  United  States  are  about  eleven  parts  of  gold  and  one  of 
copper.  Coins  wear  in  passing  from  one  person  to  another,  and 
that  is  why  the  edges  are  milled,  so  that  it  may  be  more  easily 
seen  when  they  have  become  too  light  to  be  used  as  coins. 
When  such  pieces  come  into  the  hands  of  the  government,  they 
must  be  recoined. 
145  (2064) 

1.  What  four  valuable  qualities  of  gold  are  mentioned  here? 

2.  How  much  alloy  is  there  in  gold  that  is  twenty-four  carats 
fine? 

3.  What  is  a  "carat"? 

4.  What  are  the  proportions  of  gold  and  alloy  in  U.S.  gold 
coins  ? 

5.  Why  are  the  edges  of  coins  milled? 

EXERCISE  II 

A  BRAVE  HAWAIIAN  PRINCESS 

From  Mirick  and  Holmes,  Home  Life  Around  the  World 

(This  exercise  consists  of  paragraphs  in  which  the  sentences 
have  been  disarranged.  The  sentences  are  numbered.  The 
task  of  the  pupil  is  to  decide  in  what  order  the  sentences  should 
be  read  in  order  to  give  proper  sequence  to  the  author's 
thoughts.  The  proper  order  can  be  easily  indicated  either 
orally  or  in  writing  by  means  of  the  numbers  at  the  beginning 
of  each  sentence.) 


I 

1.  He  had  a  beautiful  daughter  named  Kapiolani. 

2.  The  home  of  this  king  and  of  the  princess  was  near  the 
great  volcano  from  which  ever  rises  the  white  cloud  of 
steam  that  is  seen  far  out  on  the  waters  of  the  ocean. 

3.  In  the  days,  long  ago,  when  Kaluhe  had  grown  to  man- 
hood, there  was  a  powerful  king  who  ruled  the  brown- 
skinned,  savage  people  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        211 


n 


1.  One  was  named  "Fiery-Eyed-Canoe-Breaker." 

2.  The  mightiest  of  these  spirits,  and  their  ruler,  was  the 
goddess,  Pele. 

3.  Kapiolani,  the  king,  and  all  the  people,  believed  that  the 
terrible  fire-mountain,  as  they  called  the  volcano,  was  the 
home  of  evil  spirits. 

4.  Another  was  called  "  Red-Hot-Mountain-Lifting-ClouJs, " 
and  the  others  had  equally  terrifying  names. 

c.  Pele  had  several  sisters. 


Ill 

1.  Some  sweet,  red  berries  grew  there  of  which  thty  were  very 

fond. 

2.  "Some  we  also  eat." 

3.  These  simple-minded  savages  were  very  careful  not  to 
displease  Pele  and  her  sisters. 

4.  "Pele,  here  are  your  berries.    We  give  some  to  you." 

5.  They  were  particularly  careful  not  to  take  anything  that 
grew  near  the  volcano  without  asking  permission  of  the 
goddess. 

6.  Then  they  ate  all  they  wanted  without  fear,  because  they 
thought  the  spirit  was  pleased  with  their  gift. 

7.  But  when  they  picked  them  they  were  accustomed  to 
throw  a  few  in  the  direction  of  the  crater,  saying: 


IV 

This  story  of  Pele  and  the  ocean  spirits  was  one  that 
Nalima  used  to  tell  Kaluhe  as  they  sat  together  under  the 
palm  trees  making  cloth. 

They  also  went  on  long  journeys  and  had  strange  adven- 
tures. 

It  was  supposed  that  these  fire-spirits  sometimes  quar- 
reled. 


212  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 


1.  At  his  command  they  leaped  up  the  sides  of  the  volcano. 

2.  Pale  replied  from  her  home  in  the  volcano,  "You  are  not 
my  master.    I  refuse  to  obey  you." 

3.  Once  upon  a  time  the  god  of  the  ocean  became  very 
angry  with  Pele,  the  fire-spirit,  because  she  would  not 
obey  him. 

4.  They  flowed  over  the  edge  of  the  crater  and  filled  it  full 
of  water  to  the  very  top. 

5.  Then  the  god  of  the  ocean  summoned  his  water-spirits. 

6.  He  came  one  day  to  the  foot  of  the  fire-mountain  and 
shouted,  '*Pele,  come  forth." 

7.  Huge  waves  rolled  in  from  the  boundless  sea,  and  piled 
one  on  top  of  the  other  on  the  shore. 

VI 

1.  All  the  waters  to  the  last  drop  were  hurled  from  the 
crater  back  to  their  home  in  the  ocean. 

2.  Together  they  set  to  work  to  drive  the  water-spirits  from 
their  home. 

3.  For  one  short  moment  it  seemed  that  Pele  and  the  other 
fire-spirits  were  drowned  and  that  their  fires  were  quenched 
forever. 

4.  They  rushed  to  help  her. 

5.  But  she  cried  aloud  to  her  sisters. 

6.  Then  they  heated  them  still  more  and  great  clouds  of 
steam  rose  into  the  air. 

7.  First  they  heated  the  waters  until  they  boiled. 

8.  So  Pele  ruled  once  more  in  her  mountain. 

9.  There  was  a  fearful  explosion. 

10.  Almost  in  despair,  exerting  all  their  power,  they  heated 
the  water  many  times  hotter  than  before. 

vn 

I.  The  savages  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  believed  such  stories 
as  this  until  white  people  from  our  own  country  went  to 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        213 

them  and  taught  them  that  there  were  neither  water- 
spirits  nor  firc-spirits. 

The  beautiful  princess,  Kapiolani,  determined  to  prove 
to  her  people  that  they  need  fear  these  spirits  no  longer. 
How  she  did  it  is  told  in  the  following  story. 


VIII 

1.  When,  at  night,  the  fires  of  the  crater  lit  up  the  sky  and 
the  earth  shook,  the  mountain  rumbled,  and  the  lava 
gushed  up  over  its  edge  and  flowed  down  the  mountain- 
side, she  used  to  tremble  with  fear  as  she  lay  on  her  bed  of 
grass-mats  and  pray  to  the  fire-spirits  to  protect  her  from 
harm. 

2.  When  Kapiolani  was  a  little  girl,  she  had  been  taught  to 
fear  Pele  and  her  sisters. 

3.  Many  times  she  had  gone  to  the  mountain  to  pick  the 
sacred  berries,  but  had  never  dared  eat  them  until  some 
had  been  offered  to  the  goddess. 

IX 

1.  She  had  come  to  believe  that  there  was  no  Pele  and  that 
there  were  no  fire-spirits. 

2.  But  they  would  not  believe  unless  she  proved  it  to  them. 

3.  She  wanted  her  people  to  believe  this  also.  , 

4.  But  now  she  had  grown  to  be  a  woman. 


1.  If  I  come  back  unhurt,  you  will  know  that  there  are  no 
fire-spirits. 

2.  So  one  day  she  walked  up  the  side  of  the  fire-mountain 
with  a  great  company  of  her  people. 

3.  But  she  said,  "I  will  descend  into  the  crater." 

4.  As  they  came  near  the  crater,  they  urged  her  to  go  back, 

5.  "  If  I  do  not  return  safe,  continue  to  fear  Pele." 


214  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

XI 

1.  All  expected  the  angry  goddess  to  appear  and  burn  up  the 
daring  princess. 

2.  She  pushed  a  stick  into  the  sacred  ashes.  She  ate  the 
sacred  berries  of  Pele  in  her  very  home.  She  cried  aloud 
to  the  spirits  to  destroy  her  if  they  could. 

3.  Then  she  went  down  into  the  crater  with  a  few  who  were 
willing  to  die  with  her. 

4.  From  that  time  the  people  ceased  believing  in  fire-spirits, 
and  they  loved  and  honored  their  beautiful  princess  even 
more  than  they  had  before. 

5.  But  when  she  stood  unharmed  and  returned  in  safety, 
they  shouted,  "There  is  no  Pele!  There  are  no  fire- 
spirits." 

XII 

1.  Since  the  time  when  the  white  people  taught  Kapiolani 
not  to  believe  in  the  fire-spirits,  people  have  gone  there 
from  many  lands,  not  only  from  our  own  country,  but 
from  China,  Japan,  and  from  Portugal  and  Italy. 

2.  To-day  the  Hawaiian  Islands  belong  to  the  United  States. 

3.  All  these  things  happened  a  hundred  years  ago. 

4.  They  have  cleared  away  the  jungles  and  have  planted 
tropical  gardens  in  their  place  —  plantations  of  sugar, 
rice,  coffee,  and  pineapples. 

5.  The  beautiful  city  of  Honolulu  now  stands  where  Kaluhe 
once  lived. 

6.  Instead  of  grass  huts  we  shall  find  neat  little  cottages  of 
wood. 

EXERCISE  III 

(Tn  this  exercise  words  are  omitted  from  the  text.  These 
words  are  listed  at  the  top  of  each  section.  The  pupils  are  to 
fill  in  the  blanks  with  the  proper  words  as  they  read.  Each 
word  can  be  used  but  once  in  a  section.  There  are  some  words 
in  each  list  that  do  not  belong  in  any  of  the  blanks.) 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES       215 

GRANNIE  AND  THE  TWINS 
From  Perkins,  The  Cave  Twins 

I 

Stirred,  sticks,  she,  acorns,  lap,  sat,  mouth,  sun,  trees,  womany 
reach,  piece,  burning,  front,  sat,  vast,  spring. 

One  bright  morning  of  early ,  long  ages  ago,  the  sun 

peered  through  the on  the  edge  of  a forest, 

and  sent  a  shaft  of  yellow  sunlight  right  into  the of  a 

great,  dark  cave.     In of  the  cave  a  bright  fire  was 

burning,  and  on  a  rock  before  it an  old  woman.     In 

her  lap  was  a of  birch-bark,  and  on  the  bark  was  a  heap 

of She  was  roasting  them  in  the  ashes  and  eating 

them.     At  her  right  hand,  within  easy ,  there  was  a 

pile  of  broken and  tree  branches,  and  every  now  and 

then  the  old put  on  fresh  wood  and the  coals  to 

keep  the  fire  bright. 

n 

Nor,  climbed,  there,  shore,  shining,  where,  down,  blue,  forests,  any, 
far,  lay,  slightest. 

A  little  path  ran  from  the  front  of  the  cave   the  old 

woman  sat,  down  the  sloping  hillside  to  a  river,  and  the 

morning  sun   across  it  made  a  bridge  of  dazzling  light 

from  shore  to  shore. 

Beyond  the  river were  green  fields  and  forests,  and 

beyond  the high  hills  over  which  the  sun every 

morning.     What  lay  beyond  those blue  hills  neither 

the  old  woman any  of  the  clan  of  the  Black  Bear  had 

the idea. 

in 

From,  sizzling,  sound,  lit,  beginning,  trees,  seemed,  cracked,  made, 
no,  above,  little,  way,  long. 
Everything quiet  and  peaceful  on  that  spring  morn- 
ing so  ago.  The  trees  were to  turn  green  and  little 


2i6  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

plants  were  already  pushing  their    through  the  carpet 

of  dead  leaves.     A  robin    upon  the  branches  of  a  tree 

the  cave  and  sang  his  morning  song. 

There  was  no  other  sound  except  the    of  a  wet  stick 

upon  the  fire,  and  the  snapping  noise  by  the  old  woman 

when  she   took  a  roasted  acorn the  fire  and   

it  with  her  teeth. 

IV 

Comb,  really,  been,  hair,  twig,  covered,  not,  ragged,  her,  long,  cotdd, 

only. 

The  old  woman  was  pretty  to  look  at.    Her  face  was 

brown  as  leather  and   with  wrinkles,  and  her  hair  hung 

about  it  in  gray  locks.  It  was  no  wonder  that  her  

was  rough  and  ragged,  for  it  had  never  been  combed  her  whole 

life  ,  and  she  was  quite  old  —  oh,  as  old  as  forty,  maybe! 

But  she could  n't  help  her  hair  being  like  that  any  more 

than  she    help  being  forty,  because  there  was  not  a 

single  yet  made  in  the  whole  world! 

V 

Nothing,  leather,  nuts,  teeth,  watch,  left,  noise,  brown. 
It  was  a  mystery  how  she  cracked  the    so  well,  be- 
cause she  had  only  a  few left  in  her  mouth.    For  clothing 

she  had  but  the  skin  of  a  deer  fastened  over  her  

shoulder  by  a  thorn,  and  tied  around  her  waist  by  a    

thong. 

VI 

Roasted,  dry,  rustling,  and,  kept,  she,  nothing,  in, unusual, against^ 

there,  an. 

Although  she  seemed  to  be  thinking  of but  her  nuts, 

the  little  bright  eyes  of  the  old  woman close  watch  in 

every  direction,  and  her  ears quick  to  hear  every 

sound.     If  a  twig  snapped,  or  there  was  a noise  in  the 

underbrush,  she  was  ready  in instant  to  fling  fresh 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        217 

sticks  on  the  fire  and  make  it  glow  red the  black  open- 
ing of  the  cave. 

VII 

Quietly,  puzzled,  fox,  both,  sheltered,  see,  leap,  wild,  how,  faintest, 
girls,  tell,  alike,  were,  size,  stealthily,  dare. 

She  knew  that  no animal,  however  fierce  and  hungry, 

would come  near  the  leaping  flames.     Yet  watchful  as 

she  was,  she  did  not two  children  who  were  creeping 

toward  her,  over  the  great  rocks  which the 

mouth  of  the  cave. 

They  were  a  boy  and  a  girl,  and  from  their they  must 

have  been  about  eight  years  old.     They had  bright 

twinkling  eyes  and  flaming  red  hair,  and  were  dressed in 

skins  of  red  foxes  of  almost  the  same  color.     You  could 

at  a  glance  that  they  were  twins,  but  it  would  have any 

one  to  tell  whether  they  were  both  boys  or  both ,  or 

one  of  each  kind.     They  came  down  over  the  rocks  so 

that  not  even  the  quick  ears  of  the  old  woman  heard  the 

sound. 

VIII 

Darkness f  over,  fire,  near,  sudden,  their,  two,  almost,  fours,  she, 
right,  simple,  instant. 

When  they  had reached  the  ground,  they  stopped, 

and  at  the  same opened  their  mouths  and  howled 

exactly  like young  wolves ! 

The  noise  was  so and  so  near  that  the  old  woman 

never  thought  of  her at  all.     She  simply  screamed  and 

fell over  backwards  into  the  cave.     Then  she  rolled 

over  and  scuttled  on  aU out  of  sight  in  the as 

fast  as  she  could  go. 

DC 

Scolded,  they,  back,  with,  acorns,  dance,  jumped,  red,  stout,  like, 

angry. 

The  acorns  in  her  lap  flew  in  every and  rolled  down 

the  hillside.    The  boy  and  girl to  the  ground,  shrieking 


2i8  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

with  laughter.    In  a  moment  the  old  woman  was again 

in  the  door  of  the  cave.     She  had  a stick  in  her  hand 

and  she  looked  very  angry.     She  shook  the  stick  at  the  Twins 

and them  so  fast  that  the  sound  of  it  was  like  the 

chattering  of  an squirrel  in  a  tree-top. 

X 

Can't,  shrieking,  while,  taste,  catch,  best,  just,  this,  English,  you, 
teach,  not,  river,  until,  reach. 

Now,  of  course,  I  cannot  tell  you the  words  she  used, 

but,  translated  into ,  this  is  what  she  said:  — 

"You  horrid  Httle  catamounts,  if  I you, I'll 

you  better  manners !  I  '11  give  you  such  a of  this 

stick  that  you  '11  not  need  more  till  the runs  dry." 

The  twins  sprang  up,  still with  laughter,  and  danced 

about  the  fire  just  out  of of  the  woman's  stick. 

"But  you catch  us,"  they  screamed. 

XI 

Heart,  afraid,  wonder,  fire,  sticks,  her,  were,  they,  flew,  looked, 
angry,  glared,  head,  scare,  heads. 

Their  red  locks  of  hair about  in  the  wind  as  they 

danced,  until  it almost  as  if  red  flames bursting 

from  their  heads.     The  old  woman at  them  helplessly. 

"Dance  away,"  she  cried,  "dance  away,  you  red-headed 

rascals!    I  shan't  need  to  put on  the  fire  while  you  are 

here.     Your  red  hair  would away  the  saber-toothed 

tiger  himself!     No you  are  not  afraid  to  run  in  the 

forest  alone!     With  such on  you,  you  are  as  safe  as  if 

you  were  in  the of  the  cave." 

EXERCISE  IV 

(This  type  of  exercise  is  designed  to  make  the  job  of  learning 
the  meanings  of  unfamiliar  words  a  pleasant  game  instead  of  a 
monotonous  task.  Instead  of  hunting  in  the  dictionary  for  the 
definitions  of  words,  the  pupils  are  given  the  definition  and  then 
they  read  to  find  the  word  which  fits  the  definition.) 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        219 

WATER  IN  THE  AIR 
From  Van  Buskirk  and  Smith,  The  Science  of  Everyday  Life,  pp.  105-06 

Water  is  always  present  in  the  air  in  the  form  of  an  invisible 
gas  called  water  vapor.  In  order  to  understand  how  the  air 
contains  water  in  a  gaseous  form  it  is  helpful  to  compare  it 
with  a  sponge,  (i)  A  sponge  can  hold  water.  So  can  the  air 
hold  water  in  the  form  of  water  vapor.  Water  in  a  liquid  form 
is  able  to  soak  in  between  the  parts  of  the  sponge.  In  some 
such  way  it  is  possible  for  water  vapor  to  be  soaked  up  by  the 
air.  (2)  The  sponge  can  hold  only  a  limited  amount  of  water. 
That  is  also  true  of  the  air  in  regard  to  water  vapor.  (3)  When 
a  sponge  is  holding  all  the  water  possible  it  is  said  to  be  satu- 
rated. The  same  expression  is  used  with  reference  to  the  air 
when  it  is  holding  all  the  water  vapor  it  can. 

Find  words  in  the  above  paragraph  to  fit  the  following 
definitions: 

1.  To  examine  in  order  to  discover  likeness  and  unlikeness. 

2.  Filled  to  the  limit  of  capacity  with  liquid. 

3.  Cannot  be  seen. 

4.  In  the  form  of  gas. 

The  air  gets  its  water  vapor  by  means  of  a  process  called 
evaporation.  This  is  the  changing  of  water  from  a  visible  liquid 
into  an  invisible  gas.  The  rapidity  of  the  process  of  evapora- 
tion depends  upon  four  factors:  (i)  the  amount  of  water  vapor 
already  present  in  the  air;  (2)  the  temperature;  (3)  the  air- 
pressure;  (4)  movement  of  the  air. 

If  the  air  is  already  saturated  with  water  vapor,  it  is  impos- 
sible for  more  vapor  to  enter,  just  as  it  is  impossible  for  a 
sponge  to  soak  up  more  water  when  it  is  saturated.  Dry  air, 
on  the  other  hand,  allows  water  to  enter  easily.  < 

Heat  increases  the  rapidity  of  evaporation.  Especially  when 
the  sun  is  shining  and  the  air  is  warm,  large  quantities  of  water 
are  evaporated  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  particularly  from 
the  surfaces  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  oceans. 

1.  The  process  of  a  liquid  changing  into  a  gas. 

2.  Makes  greater. 


«20  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

3.  Able  to  be  seen. 

4.  Being  in  a  certain  place;  being  at  hand. 

5.  An  act  which  continues  and  progresses;  an  operation. 

6.  Uncertain  amounts  of  anything;  anything  that  can  be 
increased,  divided,  or  measured. 

The  third  factor  which  helps  to  determine  the  rapidity  of 
evaporation  is  the  air-pressure.  There  is  more  rapid  evapora- 
tion when  the  air-pressure  is  low.  By  using  an  exhaust-pump, 
thus  reducing  the  pressure  of  the  air,  it  is  possible  to  make 
water  evaporate  so  quickly  that  it  actually  boils  when  cool. 
The  commotion  of  boiling  is  caused  by  the  expansion  or  enlarge- 
ment of  particles  of  the  liquid  into  a  gaseous  form.  This 
change  occurs  close  to  the  appHed  heat.  As  water  vapor  occu- 
pies about  sixteen  hundred  times  the  space  formerly  occupied 
by  the  water,  it  is  much  lighter  and  rises  to  the  surface  in  the 
form  of  bubbles.  Up  in  the  tops  of  high  mountains  boihng  is 
not  sufficient  to  cook  some  kinds  of  food.    Why  is  this  so? 

Evaporation  takes  place  more  rapidly  in  moving  air  than  in 
still  air.  After  a  rain  the  streets  dry  quickly  if  the  wind  is 
strong. 

1.  Increase  in  size  or  extent. 

2.  Making  smaller. 

3.  Fills. 

4.  To  fix,  settle,  or  decide. 

5.  In  truth;  really. 

6.  Any  thing  or  circumstance  which  helps  to  bring  about  a 
certain  result. 

7.  Takes  place;  happens. 

8.  Violent  agitation;  tumult;  disorder. 

9.  Enough. 

10.  Small  pieces. 
The  oceans  of  the  world  are  the  greatest  source  of  the  water 
vapor  in  the  air.  Large  inland  bodies  of  water,  such  as  the 
Great  Lakes  and  the  Amazon  River,  furnish  a  large  amount, 
as  do  all  the  smaller  lakes  and  rivers.  The  surface  of  the  solid 
earth  is  also  constantly  losing  water  to  the  air.  When  winds 
blow  from  a  cool  to  a  warmer  region,  they  keep  increasing  their 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        221 

capacity  to  hold  water,  and  absorb  moisture  from  anything 
they  can.  The  trade  winds,  for  example,  blow  toward  the 
hottest  parts  of  the  earth.  They  cause  so  much  water  to  be 
evaporated  from  the  earth  that  many  of  the  regions  over  which 
they  blow  are  deserts.  Other  sources  of  water  in  the  air  are 
the  Hving  bodies  of  plants  and  animals. 

1.  Power  of  receiving  or  containing. 

2.  Those  things  from  which  anything  arises  or  originates. 

3.  To  drink  in;  to  suck  or  swallow  up;  to  take  in. 

4.  The  form  taken  by  liquids  or  solids  under  the  influence  of 
heat,  or  reduction  of  pressure. 

5.  All  the  time;  continually. 

6.  The  upper  side  or  face  of  anything. 

Plants  are  constantly  giving  off  water  by  evaporation.  Some 
of  it  is  a  result  of  breathing,  since  water  is  formed  among  other 
substances  when  food  is  oxidized  in  the  cells. 

By  far  the  largest  amount  of  water  that  is  given  off  by  plants, 
however,  is  transpired.  As  you  know,  plants  absorb  much 
water  from  the  soil,  and  along  with  it,  mineral  foods  that  the 
soil  contains.  When  it  enters  the  roots  of  the  plants,  the  water, 
containing  the  mineral  food,  passes  from  cell  to  cell  in  the 
plant  body.  Since  more  water  flows  through  the  plant  than 
can  be  used  to  manufacture  plant  food,  some  of  it  is  evapo- 
rated through  the  openings  in  the  leaves  to  the  outside  air. 
The  amount  that  may  evaporate  is  very  great.  A  grass  plant 
may  transpire  in  one  day  more  than  its  weight.  Botanists 
have  estimated  that  about  half  a  ton  of  water  may  evaporate 
in  a  day  from  an  ordinary  city  lot  covered  with  grass.  The 
process  by  which  water  passes  out  of  the  leaves  is  caUed 
transpiration. 

1.  To  pass  off  as  vapor;  to  breathe  out. 

2.  That  which  is  real;  matter  or  material  from  which  any- 
thing is  made. 

3.  Reckoned;  computed. 

4.  Usual;  common. 

5.  To  be  changed  into  an  oxide. 

6.  The  act  of  breathing  out  or  passing  off  as  vapor. 


322  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

EXERCISE  V 

(This  type  of  exercise  is  designed  to  develop  the  habit  of 
concentration  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  They  like  it  because 
of  the  puzzle  element  involved.) 

DISARRANGED  SENTENCES 
From  Tappan's  The  Story  of  the  Roman  People,  pp.  99-100 

1.  The  countries  circling  /  "the  world"  meant  /conquered 
Hannibal,  /  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea  /  when  the 
Romans  /  at  the  time. 

2.  The  Romans  now  /  lying  to  the  west  /  of  Italy,  /  held  the 
chief  power  /  in  aU  the  lands. 

3.  They  had  already  /  toward  the  east  /  when  they  sup- 
pressed /  and  agreed  to  protect  /  taken  one  step  /  the 
pirates  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  /  the  Adriatic  coast  /  the 
Greek  cities  along. 

4.  But  the  condition  /  Greece  could  have  protected  /  since 
those  days  /  in  earlier  times  /  her  own  cities,  /  had 
changed  greatly  /  of  affairs  in  the  East. 

5.  When  the  Romans  /  Alexander  the  Great  began  /  were 
subduing  the  Latins,  /  about  the  time  /  his  conquests. 

6.  Philip  II,  had  left  him  /  but  this  was  a  small  /  his  father  / 
a  wonderful  series  /  realm  compared  with  what  he  /  and 
he  began  /  meant  to  win,  /  of  victories,  /  Macedonia  and 
Greece. 

7.  But  also  /  and  part  of  India  /  not  only  Macedonia  and 
Greece,  /  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Egypt,  Persia,  /  when  he 
died,  he  ruled. 

8.  Empire  /  among  /  this  /  was  /  divided  /  generals  /  his. 

9.  Have  governed  this  /  could  not  /  but  his  generals  /  him- 
self could  /  possibly  Alexander  /  enormous  domain. 

10.  And  finally  the  /  they  and  /  vast  empire  broke  up  /  their 
successors  /  into  three  kingdoms  /  quarreled  and  fought  / 
1.  Egypt.  2.  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  3.  Macedonia  and 
Greece. 


II. 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        223 

Cities  which  were  under  /  While  the  Romans  /  the  king 
of  Macedonia,  Philip  V,  /  were  contending  with  Hanni- 
bal /  attacked  some  Greek  /  the  protection  of  Rome  / 
who  was  an  ally  of  the  Carthaginians,  / 

12.  First  /  this  /  Macedonian  /  led  /  to  /  war  /  the. 

13.  And  with  most  /  was  subdued,  /  excellent  reason  /  with 
Philip  again,  /  after  Hannibal  /  war  broke  out. 

14.  Antiochus  of  Syria  /  divide  Egypt  /  plotted  to  /  he  and 
King  /  between  them. 

15.  Philip  would  control  /  the  ^gean  Sea  /  on  the  shores  of  / 
the  Greek  cities  /  if  this  plan  should  succeed. 

16.  Came  much  of  /  a  vast  amount  of  trading  /  ^Egean  Sea, 
the  Black  Sea,  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, /  was  carried  on  in  the  /  needed  in  Italy  /  part  of 
the  world  /  the  grain  /  and  from  this. 

17.  Of  her  food  /  if  Philip  was  successful,  then  he,  /  whenever 
he  chose  /  a  large  part  /  an  enemy  of  Rome,  /  could  shut 
off. 

18.  Of  the  Romans  /  to  arouse  /  this  was  enough  /  the 
interest, 

19.  Might  think  /  not  trouble  himself  /  about  what  the 
Romans  /  Philip  did  /  but  attacked  Egypt  and  Athens. 

20.  And  his  guardians  /  was  a  boy  /  appealed  to  Rome  /  the 
king  of  Egypt  /  for  help. 

21.  That  had  for  / as  for  Athens /of  the  Romans /some 
time  been  /  an  ally. 

22.  Of  her  people  /  not  to  harass  /  the  friends  /  Rome  warned 
Philip. 

23.  That  Macedonia  /  as  Rome  /  Philip  replied  that  /  but 
if  they  /  he  should  prefer  peace  /  was  as  powerful  /  they 
would  learn  /  wished  to  fight. 

24.  Two  ranges  of  hills,  met  in  Greece  /  and  shaped  like  /  of 
Philip  and  the  Romans  /  at  the  Cynocephalae,  or  dogs* 
heads,  I  then  the  armies  /  the  heads  of  dogs. 

25.  General  Flaminius  /  by  the  Roman  /  thoroughly  de- 
feated /  Philip  was. 


224  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

EXERCISE  VI 

(Material  selected  from  Winslow's  The  United  States,^  and 
arranged  to  bring  out  the  chief  thought  or  topic  in  each  sec- 
tion.) 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  SECTION 

Section  i 

Question:  How  do  the  physical  features  of  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  United  States  differ  from  those  of  the 
northeastern  part? 
In  passing  from  the  northeastern  part  of  the  country  to  the 
southeastern  part,  we  go  from  a  region  of  rocky  hills  and  many 
lakes  to  one  containing  a  great  amount  of  comparatively  level 
land,  well  suited  to  agriculture.     The  Appalachian  system  of 
mountains  extends  nearly  across  the  eastern  part  of  this  sec- 
tion.    In  the  South,  as  in  the  North,  these  ancient  mountains 
have  been  so  worn  down  that  in  places  they  have  become  mere 
hills,  or  even  level  land.     In  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee 
there  are  still   hills  and   mountains  of  considerable   height. 
Mount  Mitchell,  the  highest  of  the  system,  is  more  than  a  mile 
high. 

io6 

Section  2 

Question:  What  is  the  Piedmont  Belt? 

A  wide  belt  of  country  lying  next  to  the  mountains  on  the 
east  is  nearly  level,  or  covered  with  low  hills  with  river  valleys 
among  them.  This  section  is  sometimes  called  the  Piedmont 
Belt.  The  word  piedmont  means  foot  of  the  mountain.  The 
name  is  given  to  the  section  because  it  lies  along  the  foot  of 
the  Appalachian  Mountains,  where  the  land  has  been  formed 
by  the  wearing  away  of  the  mountains. 
72  (178) 

»  Winslow,  Isaac  Oscar,  The  United  States,  pp.  91  St-  Boston:  D.  C.  Heath  and 
Company,  igio. 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        225 

Section  3 

Problem:  Explain  the  formation  of  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain. 
The  strip  of  country  between  the  Piedmont  Belt  and  the 
ocean  is  generally  low,  level,  and  sandy.  It  is  a  part  of  the 
Atlantic  coastal  plain.  All  this  land  was  once  beneath  the 
ocean.  The  soil  was  formed  by  the  wearing  efTect  of  waves  on 
the  shore,  or  from  mud  carried  into  the  ocean  by  rivers. 

56  (234) 

Section  4 

Question:  How  do  the  northern  and  southern  coasts  dlfTer? 
There  is  a  striking  contrast  between  the  northern  and  south- 
ern coasts.  While  in  the  North  the  sinking  of  the  lands  has 
produced  islands,  drowned  valleys,  and  deep  harbors,  in  the 
South  the  land  has  risen  enough  to  make  dry  land  of  a  strip  of 
the  ocean  bed.  Since  mud  was  spread  evenly  by  the  waves  over 
the  ocean  floor,  this  floor  became  level  land  after  it  rose  above 
the  water.  The  even  bed  of  the  ocean  made  an  unbroken  coast 
line,  without  many  capes  and  bays. 
86  (320) 

Section  5 

Question:  What  are  barrier  reefs? 

Since  this  period  of  rising,  the  southern  coast  has  settled 
again  a  very  little.  This  has  been  an  advantage  by  increasing 
the  depth  of  water  in  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  in  the  harbors. 
In  the  shallow  water  near  the  shore  the  waves  have  washed 
up  sand  from  the  bottom  and  formed  long  islands  called  sand 
bars  or  barrier  reefs.  In  a  similar  manner  a  low  coastal  plain 
has  been  formed  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

75  (395) 

Section  6 

Question:  What  are  the  Florida  Keys? 

A  large  part  of  southern  Florida  is  elevated  but  little  above 
the  sea,  and  portions  of  it  consist  of  extensive  marshes  or 


226  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

swamps.  The  largest  of  these  is  called  the  Everglades.  The 
islands  near  the  southern  coast  are  called  the  Florida  Keys 
from  a  Spanish  word  which  means  islands. 

49  (444) 

Section  7 

Question:  How  are  coral  reefs  and  islands  formed? 

The  surface  of  portions  of  the  land  in  southern  Florida 
and  upon  the  Keys  has  been  formed  by  minute  animals  called 
coral  polyps.  In  parts  of  the  ocean  where  the  water  is  warm 
and  shallow  these  animals  live  in  great  numbers  attached  to 
the  bottom,  and  when  they  die  their  stony  skeletons  remam. 
They  continually  grow  and  die,  and  as  the  masses  are  raised 
above  the  surface,  coral  reefs  or  coral  islands  are  formed,  which 
the  force  of  the  waves  slowly  crumbles  into  soil. 
84  (528) 

Section  8 

Question:  What  three  States  of  the  Southern  Section  have  no 
seacoast? 
In  the  Southern  Section  we  may  mclude  the  States  bordering 
on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  from  North 
Carolina  to  Texas,  and  the  States  of  Tennessee,  Arkansas,  and 
Oklahoma. 
32  (560) 

Section  9 

Question:  Why  has  the  development  of  the  resources  of  this 
section  been  so  slow? 
These  States,  which  are  usually  called  the  Southern  States, 
are  among  the  richest  possessions  of  the  country.  For  many 
years  they  have  suffered  the  terrible  results  of  the  Civil  War, 
in  which  they  lost  a  vast  amount  of  property  and  the  lives  of 
many  of  their  bravest  young  men.  But  since  the  close  of  that 
war  they  have  advanced  rapidly  in  wealth  and  general  pros- 
perity. 

65  (62s) 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        227 

Section  10 

Problem:  Give  some  comparisons  to  illustrate  the  size  of  Texas. 
When  the  rich  and  well-watered  lands  of  the  "sunny  South" 
are  fully  occupied  and  cultivated,  they  will  provide  homes  for 
many  millions  of  people.  Texas  is  the  largest  of  all  our  States. 
It  is  difficult  to  realize  its  size.  It  contains  four  times  as  much 
territory  as  the  whole  of  New  England.  It  is  larger  than  any 
country  of  Europe  except  Russia.  It  is  believed  that  it  will 
at  some  time  be  able  to  support  one  half  as  many  people  as  the 
whole  country  now  contains. 
,       87  (712) 

EXERCISE  VII 

(Showing  the  adaptability  of  encyclopsedic  material  to 
effective  silent-reading  drill.) 

THE  STORY  OF  COAL» 

Section  i 

Ages  before  man  lived  upon  the  earth  portions  of  it  were 
covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  vegetation  far  more  luxuriant 
than  that  found  now  in  the  densest  tropical  jungle.  By  the 
lowering  of  the  level  of  the  land  these  dense  forests  were  cov- 
ered by  the  ocean,  and  while  resting  for  ages  on  the  bottom  of 
the  sea  they  were  buried  by  mud.  The  land  again  rose  and 
appeared  above  the  ocean.  The  mud  was  hardened  into  rock 
and  the  buried  vegetation  by  heat  and  pressure  was  turned  into 
coal.  This  process  was  repeated  many  times  through  the 
uncounted  ages  and  for  this  reason  we  find  the  coal  in  veins,  one 
above  another  and  separated  from  each  other  by  layers  of  rock. 
Green  plants  can  grow  only  in  direct  sunlight.  Since  the  plants 
of  the  coal  period  owed  their  growth  to  the  influence  of  the  sun, 
and  since  the  heat  energy  released  by  burning  the  coal  is  the 
same  energy  gathered  from  the  sun's  rays  and  stored  in  their 

'O'Shea,  M.  V.,  editor,  et  al.  World  Book,  vol.  m,  pp.  1442-43.  Chicago: 
W.  F.  Quorrie  and  Company. 


228  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

tissues  ages  ago  by  the  plants  from  which  the  coal  is  made,  coal 
is  sometimes  called  buried  sunshine,  a  very  appropriate  name. 
191 

Questions: 

1.  How  did  the  dense  forests  of  the  coal  period  come  to  be 
covered  with  water? 

2.  What  happened  to  them  while  thus  buried? 

3.  Did  the  mud  become  rock  under  water  or  above? 

4.  By  what  means  did  the  buried  vegetation  become  coal? 

5.  Why  is  coal  found  in  veins  one  above  another? 

6.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  layers  of  rock  separating  the  coal 
veins? 

7.  Why  is  BURIED  SUNSHINE  an  appropriate  name  for  coal? 

Section  2 
Mineral  coal,  as  hard  and  soft  coal  is  generally  called,  differs 
from  charcoal  in  several  particulars.  Since  it  was  formed  under 
great  pressure  it  is  more  compact,  and  since  the  air  was  practi- 
cally excluded  during  its  formation  many  of  the  gases  which 
are  driven  off  in  making  charcoal  were  changed  into  sub- 
stances that  combined  with  the  coal.  These  are  compounds  of 
hydrogen  and  carbon  with  a  few  other  substances  and  their 
presence  in  varying  proportions  gives  us  the  different  varieties 
of  coal. 

81  (272) 

Questions: 

1.  What  name  is  applied  to  both  hard  and  soft  coal? 

2.  Why  is  coal  more  solid  and  compact  than  charcoal? 

3.  When  coal  is  being  formed,  what  becomes  of  the  gases 
that  cannot  escape  because  of  lack  of  air? 

4.  Why  is  air  practically  excluded  during  the  process  of  coal 
formation? 

5.  What  are  the  chief  chemical  elements  composing  these 
compounds? 

6.  What  causes  the  difference  in  the  different  varieties  of 
coal? 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES         229 

Section  3 

Three  general  varieties  of  coal  are  recognized  in  commerce. 
The  classification  is  founded  on  the  degree  of  hardness  and  the 
varieties  are  anthracite,  bituminous,  and  lignite. 

Anthracite  is  the  hardest  and  best  variety.  It  is  often  called 
stone  coal  because  it  is  so  hard  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
first  coal  formed,  since  it  occurs  deep  in  the  earth.  It  was 
probably  subjected  to  greater  heat  than  bituminous  coal, 
since  it  is  almost  pure  carbon.  The  most  extensive  anthracite 
mines  are  in  Eastern  Pennsylvania.  The  veins  do  not  he 
horizontally,  for  they  have  been  moved  by  mighty  convulsions 
of  the  earth.  Some  are  near  the  surface,  while  others  are  found 
at  great  depths.  Anthracite  burns  with  little  or  no  flame  and 
without  smoke,  and  produces  intense  heat.  Its  chief  uses  are 
for  warming  dwellings  and  for  manufacture  of  water-gas. 

143  (415) 
Questions: 

1.  Into  what  three  general  varieties  is  coal  classified? 

2.  What  is  the  basis  of  classification? 

3.  Why  is  anthracite  often  called  stone  coal? 

4.  What  is  supposed  to  be  true  of  anthracite  coal  on  account 
of  its  being  found  so  deep  in  the  earth? 

5.  Why  is  it  beheved  that  anthracite  was  subjected  to 
greater  heat  than  bituminous  coal  in  the  process  of  forma- 
tion? 

6.  Which  variety  of  coal  contains  the  highest  percentage  of 
carbon? 

7.  What  is  Eastern  Pennsylvania  noted  for? 

8.  If  anthracite  coal  was  formed  at  great  depths,  why  is  it 
sometimes  found  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  earth? 

9.  What  are  the  chief  uses  of  anthracite  coal? 

I  have  devoted  considerable  space  to  the  preceding 
silent-reading  passages  in  an  attempt  to  make  clear  to  the 
reader  the  kind  of  material  we  have  found  best  suited  to 
class  drill,  and  its  arrangement  in  such  a  way  that  it  can 


230  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

be  utilized  by  the  teacher  with  the  least  amount  of  extra 
efifort  on  her  part. 

Ways  of  Using  Silent-Reading  Material 

There  are  several  different  ways  in  which  such  material 
can  be  handled  so  as  to  furnish  live  class  drill.  They  may 
be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  The  simplest  way,  and  the  one  which  demands  least 
extra  work  on  the  teacher's  part,  is  to  give  the  class  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  time  in  which  to  read  a  definite  amount  of 
material  and  then  call  upon  one  of  the  class  to  tell,  with 
books  closed,  as  much  as  he  can  remember  of  what  he  has 
read.  While  he  recites,  the  rest  of  the  class  watch  for 
errors  or  omissions.  When  he  has  finished,  other  members 
of  the  class  correct  errors  of  statement  and  supply  impor- 
tant details  which  he  may  have  left  out.  This  is  good  drill, 
but  should  not  be  used  exclusively.  There  should  be 
variety  in  silent-reading  drill  as  well  as  in  any  other.  The 
method  possesses  the  special  advantage  of  giving  the  child 
a  large  amount  of  practice  in  oral  expression  under  condi- 
tions least  conducive  to  self-consciousness.  He  really  has 
something  to  say,  some  one  to  say  it  to,  and  an  object 
in  saying  it.  Ability  to  think  and  talk  well  at  the  same 
time  develops  with  surprising  rapidity  under  such  condi- 
tions. 

2.  The  class  may  be  given  a  certain  amount  of  material 
to  be  read  in  a  limited  time;  and  then,  with  books  closed, 
the  pupils  may  answer  from  memory  questions  asked  by 
the  teacher  covering  the  important  facts  in  the  assignment. 
To  save  valuable  time  in  class,  and  in  order  that  the  ques- 
tions may  be  well  chosen,  they  should  always  be  prepared 
and  written  down  by  the  teacher  beforehand.  This  is 
probably  the  poorest  of  the  methods  I  am  suggesting.  It 
forces  rapidity  and  concentration  in  the  reading;  but  it 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES         231 

gives  the  advantage  to  the  child  with  good  memory,  and  it 
afifords  the  pupils  no  definite  objective  in  their  reading. 

3.  The  class  may  be  asked  questions,  the  answers  to 
which  are  given  or  suggested  in  the  material  to  be  read. 
Then  the  pupils  read  to  find  the  answers.  The  speed  ele- 
ment takes  care  of  itself  here,  since  each  child  is  anxious 
to  be  the  first  to  find  the  answer.  In  order  to  give  the 
slower  readers  a  chance  it  is  well  to  let  the  faster  readers 
drop  out  of  the  game  in  turn  as  each  answers  a  question 
correctly  until  a  question  is  given  to  which  none  of  the  re- 
maining pupils  can  find  the  answer.  Then  one  of  the 
better  readers  may  be  permitted  to  answer  it  and  the  whole 
class  will  be  in  the  game  once  more.  To  illustrate,  here  is 
a  class  of  seven  pupils : 

A    B     C    D    E    F    G 

Let  A  be  the  first  one  to  discover  the  answer  to  the  first 
question  asked.  He  is  permitted  to  answer  it,  and  is 
thereby  automatically  debarred  from  answering  the  next 
one  unless  there  is  no  one  else  who  can  answer  it.  Suppose 
that  B  gets  the  second  question,  and  C  the  third,  and  that 
none  of  the  four  remaining  pupils  can  get  the  answer  to  the 
fourth  question  within  a  reasonable  length  of  time.  The 
teacher  may  then  appeal  to  A,  B,  and  C,  one  of  whom  may 
answer  the  question  correctly.  Then  she  begins  over 
again  with  the  whole  class.  I  have  never  yet  seen  a  class 
fail  to  react  with  interest  and  enthusiasm  to  this  type  of 
drill.  It  gives  the  child  a  definite  aim  in  his  reading,  and 
tends  to  develop  the  habit  of  rapidly  skimming  a  para- 
graph or  a  page  in  search  of  a  definite  idea. 

4.  If  the  material  is  definitely  arranged  for  silent-read- 
ing work  with  suitable  questions  printed  before  or  after 
each  section,  or  if  the  teacher's  list  of  prepared  questions 
is  put  on  the  board,  the  class  may  be  asked  to  read  the 


232  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

questions  for  themselves  as  well  as  to  read  for  the  answer. 
This  method  has  obvious  advantages.  It  makes  it  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  the  questions  be  prepared  before- 
hand, and  it  makes  the  exercise  more  purely  a  reading  drill. 

5.  A  list  of  questions  covering  a  certain  topic  or  a  cer- 
tain portion  of  the  text  may  be  put  on  the  board,  and  the 
pupils  may  be  given  a  limited  amount  of  time  in  which  to 
find  and  write  out  as  many  answers  as  possible  at  their 
seats.  Such  seat  work  is  much  more  valuable  than  merely 
giving  them  a  book  to  read  at  their  seats  with  no  time 
limit  and  no  definite  object  in  view. 

Right  here  let  me  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  lists 
of  "  map  questions  "  in  geographies,  especially  in  the  older 
geographies,  furnish  an  excellent  t3^e  of  silent-reading 
material  either  for  class  drill  or  seat  work.  In  fact,  almost 
any  sort  of  textbook  containing  lists  of  good  questions 
based  on  the  text  will  afford  good  material. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  ways  in  which  we  have  varied  the 
silent-reading  work  in  our  schools.  Other,  and  perhaps 
better,  ways  will  doubtless  occur  to  bthers  working  along 
the  same  lines.  Very  few  of  the  individual  ideas  incor- 
porated herein  are  original  with  us.  Most  of  them  have 
been  used  or  suggested  by  other  writers.  We  can  claim 
only  the  credit  of  having  gleaned  them  and  put  them  to 
work  extensively  and  systematically  to  further  our  aims. 

Any  one  of  the  methods  listed  above  possesses  this 
tremendous  advantage  over  oral-reading  class  drill.  Each 
individual  pupil  gets  much  more  reading  practice.  In 
oral  reading,  only  one  pupil  can  read  at  a  time,  but  in 
silent-reading  drill  when  one  pupil  is  reading  they  are  all 
reading,  and  reading  intensively  with  their  attention  con- 
centrated on  their  work.  Hence,  if  there  are  ten  pupils 
in  the  class,  each  pupil  gets  ten  times  as  much  reading 
practice.    If  there  are  twenty  pupils  in  the  class,  each  one 


READING  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES        233 

gets  twenty  times  as  much  practice,  and  so  on.  And  it  is 
practice  —  especially  practice  with  effort  —  that  develops 
real  reading  ability. 

If  any  one  believes  that  such  changes  in  methods  and 
materials  as  I  have  advocated  herein  will  result  in  work 
that  is  dull  and  uninteresting  to  the  child,  he  needs  only  to 
try  them  or  to  observe  them  in  operation.  He  will  then  be 
convinced  of  the  contrary,  unless  his  mind  is  so  hardened 
by  prejudice  that  he  can  see  no  good  in  any  new  thing. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

TEACHING  CHILDREN  HOW  TO  STUDY 

The  title  of  this  chapter  may  cause  one  to  speculate  as  to 
the  connection  between  standardized  tests  and  teaching 
children  how  to  study.  The  line  of  thought  runs  some- 
thing like  this:  the  tests  measure  the  results  of  study; 
results  of  study  depend  on  efficiency  of  study;  efficiency  of 
study  depends  on  the  child's  study  habits  as  certainly  as 
on  his  natural  ability;  and  good  study  habits  can  be  formed 
economically  only  by  special  training  in  the  art  of  study. 
Hence  helping  children  to  improve  their  study  habits  is  an 
important  part  of  a  systematic  testing  program  designed 
to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  schools. 

Children  do  not  Know  How  to  Study 

If  there  is  any  one  point  upon  which  everybody  engaged 
in  educational  work  can  agree  unanimously  and  unhesi- 
tatingly, it  is  that  young  people  do  not  know  how  to  study 
and  that  most  of  them  do  not  learn  how  to  study.  Well, 
why  should  they  know  how  to  study  or  learn  how  to  study? 
The  abihty  to  study  efficiently  is  an  acquired  art.  It  can 
be  acquired  only  through  the  practice  of  correct  methods, 
and  none  too  easily  at  that.  Children  are  not  born  with 
the  ability  to  study  and  usually  no  one  seems  to  take  any 
very  effectual  pains  to  teach  them. 

And  yet,  the  child's  chief  occupation  for  five  or  six  hours 
per  day,  five  days  per  week,  thirty  or  forty  weeks  per  year, 
for  from  eight  to  sixteen  years,  is  supposed  to  be  study. 
Hundreds  of  thousands  of  men  and  women,  at  a  cost  of 
hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  per  year,  are  supposed  to 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  HOW  TO  STUDY.  235 

be  directing  the  study  of  the  Nation's  children.  They 
assign  lessons,  order  the  children  to  study  them,  and  have 
the  children  recite  them.  Still  we  hear  the  cry  from 
teachers  all  along  the  line  in  tones  of  despair:  "  Children 
do  not  know  how  to  study!  Children  do  not  learn  how  to 
study!  If  children  could  but  study  efficiently,  the  teach- 
er's Hfe  might  be  worth  living!  " 

But  what  are  teachers  doing  to  help  make  their  lives 
more  worth  living?  How  many  of  them  are  making  any 
systematic,  persistent  efforts  to  help  their  pupils  learn  how 
to  study  to  the  best  advantage?  All  too  often  the  teachers 
themselves  do  not  know  how  to  study  efficiently.  Some  of 
them,  as  I  know  from  annoying  experience,  cannot  even 
read  well  enough  to  translate  accurately  into  action  simple 
printed  directions,  such  as  those  accompanying  standard- 
ized tests.  If  the  teachers  do  not  know  how  to  study,  they 
cannot,  of  course,  expect  or  be  expected  to  have  much 
success  in  trying  to  teach  children  the  art  of  study. 

Children  must  be  Taught  to  Study 

Nevertheless,  if  children  are  to  study  efficiently,  they 
must  be  taught,  or  rather  helped  to  learn,  to  study. 
There  is  no  more  reason  to  expect  a  child  to  become  expert 
in  the  art  of  study  without  special  training  and  directed 
practice  than  there  is  to  expect  a  man  to  become  an  expert 
biologist  or  surgeon  without  special  training.  The  fact 
that  some  few  of  superior  mentality  who  go  on  through 
high  school  or  college  become  good  students  because  of 
special  aptitude  and  much  practice  is  no  argument  that 
most  pupils  ought  to  be  able  to  do  likewise.  The  musical 
genius,  without  special  training,  can  improvise  delightful 
music;  but  most  people  need  special  training  to  make  their 
musical  efforts  worth  hearing.  Measured  by  the  amount 
of  worth-while  results  obtained,  assigning  a  lesson  to  the 


236  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

average  child  with  orders  to  learn  it  is  about  on  a  par  with 
giving  a  person  untrained  in  music  a  sheet  of  music  with 
orders  to  play  it.     The  results  are  usually  discouraging. 

Poor  Methods  Prevail 

Poorly  assigned  lessons  and  the  customary  type  of  recita- 
tion have  done  much  to  encourage  wrong  methods,  or 
rather  wrong  ideas,  of  study.  Almost  universally  to  the 
child,  and  only  too  often  to  the  teacher,  studying  and 
memorizing  have  become  synonymous  terms.  The  child, 
assigned  the  next  five  pages  in  history,  and  knowing  from 
experience  that  he  will  be  thoroughly  questioned  to  test 
his  remembrance  of  the  details  of  the  lesson  or  called  upon 
to  recite  from  a  topic,  knows  no  other  resource  than  to 
memorize  as  many  items  as  possible,  or  to  memorize  as 
much  of  the  text  verbatim  as  possible.  Quite  as  often  as 
not  the  teacher's  questions  cover  so  indiscriminately  both 
important  facts  and  inconsequential  details  that  the  child 
does  not  dare  to  neglect  any  detail  even  though  he  himself 
may  have  some  decided  ideas,  and  good  ones  too,  as  to 
what  are  the  essential  points  in  the  lesson.  The  memo- 
rizing of  facts  to  be  repeated  in  class,  or  to  be  elicited  in 
answer  to  suggestive  questions  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
seems  to  be  the  dominant  feature  of  so-called  "study"  in 
most  schools. 

Many  teachers,  realizing  the  need  for  training  children 
to  study,  have  made  serious  attempts  to  meet  the  need. 
Some  of  them  have  succeeded  in  a  measure,  but  more  of 
them  have  failed  through  not  attacking  the  problem  from 
the  proper  angle.  In  many  cases  the  teachers  who  failed 
were  fairly  good  students  themselves  and  were  reasonably 
acquainted  with  the  psychological  principles  involved  in 
efficient  study.  They  took  particular  pains  to  provide  an 
environment  as  favorable  as  possible  to  study.    They  told 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  HOW  TO  STUDY    237 

their  pupils  to  be  interested  in  what  they  were  studying, 
to  concentrate  their  attention,  to  think  about  what  they 
were  reading,  to  study  the  relations  of  facts  given  in  the 
book,  and  to  associate  the  new  knowledge  with  what  they 
had  learned  before.  All  of  this  is  perfectly  sound  advice 
and  strictly  to  the  point,  but  it  is  for  the  most  part  so 
much  Greek  to  the  children;  and  it  would  be  difficult  for 
them  to  profit  by  it  through  their  own  unaided  efforts  even 
if  they  could  be  made  to  understand  it. 

What  is  the  use  of  telling  a  child  to  interest  himself  in 
something  entirely  foreign  to  his  natural  inclinations 
when  we  as  adults  know  perfectly  well  how  practically 
impossible  it  is  to  force  a  real  interest  in  anything  that 
does  not  appeal  to  us?  Of  what  use  is  it  to  tell  a  child  that 
he  must  keep  his  attention  absolutely  fixed  on  what  he  is 
reading  at  his  seat,  whether  he  is  interested  in  it  or  not, 
when  he  has  such  varied  interests  of  his  own  outside  of 
school  toward  which  his  mind  naturally  tends  to  wander  ? 
Of  what  advantage  is  it  to  tell  him  to  thhik  about  what  he 
is  reading  when  he  has  been  given  no  definite  problem  to 
think  about?  What  does  the  child  know  about  making 
deliberate  mental  associations  for  the  purpose  of  accumu- 
lating a  store  of  organized  knowledge?  So,  although  the 
advice  is  good,  it  simply  does  n't  "  take."  The  teacher 
soon  becomes  discouraged  and  gives  up  trying,  convinced 
that  the  children  cannot  be  taught  to  study  effectively. 

And  she  is  right  in  her  conviction.  They  cannot  be 
taught  how  to  study  in  the  sense  of  being  told  or  shown 
how.  But  they  can  be  helped  to  learn  to  study.  A  child  in 
the  elementary  school  has  no  apperceptive  basis  that  will 
enable  him  to  understand  or  appreciate  the  importance  of 
interest,  attention,  thinking,  association,  etc.,  in  their 
relation  to  effective  study,  and  he  has  not  ordinarily  the 
mental  stamina  of  the  superior  adult  to  enable  him  to 


238  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

apply  them  persistently  of  his  own  volition  even  if  he  were 
capable  of  understanding  them. 

Something  more  is  needed  than  merely  telling  a  child 
how  to  study.  He  must  be  given  assignments  with  very 
definite  problems  to  work  out  and  then  be  made  to  study 
these  assignments  under  conditions  that  will  force  uncon- 
scious practice  of  the  rules  of  effective  study  until  proper 
methods  of  study  become  habitual.  In  other  words,  the 
child  must  be  forced  to  study  correctly  if  he  is  to  learn  to 
study  through  practice;  and  he  must  learn  through  prac- 
tice if  he  is  to  learn  at  all.  But  he  will  never  learn  to  do 
the  thing  correctly  by  practicmg  it  incorrectly  and  the 
latter  is  what  most  pupils  are  doing  every  day  in  our 
public  schools.  The  brighter  ones  who  attend  school  long 
enough  eventually  to  learn  to  study  with  some  degree  of 
efficiency  acquire  their  proficiency  through  the  uneconomi- 
cal process  of  trial  and  error  by  means  of  which  unsuccess- 
ful methods  of  study  are  recognized  in  time  and  dropped 
while  more  successful  ones  are  slowly  acquired. 

Situations  which  Favor  Good  Study  Habits  must  be 
Provided 

Thus  the  child  must  be  helped  to  learn  how  to  study  by 
being  led  to  study  properly.  At  the  same  time  he  is 
generally  incapable  of  understanding  and  consciously 
applying  persistently  the  psychological  principles  under- 
lying proper  methods  of  study.  Hence  I  say  that  the  child 
must  be  obliged  to  apply  these  principles,  not,  of  course, 
by  the  use  of  physical  force,  but  through  providing  study 
conditions  that  will  compel  him  to  apply  them  unwittingly. 
This  can  be  done  without  the  principles  being  men- 
tioned as  such  or  being  discussed  in  any  way.  If  the  child 
has  no  immediate  interest  in  the  subject-matter  to  be 
studied,  then  the  learning  process  itself  must  be  made 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  HOW  TO  STUDY    239 

interesting,  or  else  the  subject-matter  must  be  made  worth 
while  from  the  child's  point  of  view  by  connecting  it  up 
definitely  with  some  problem  in  which  he  is  vitally  inter- 
ested. Concentration  must  be  secured  largely  through 
furnishing  frequent  objects  or  goals  during  the  study 
period.  The  habit  of  looking  for  fact  relationships  must 
be  developed  by  thought  questions  which  will  compel  the 
child  to  draw  inferences  from  a  collection  of  facts  given  in 
the  text,  and  by  supervised  outline  construction.  The 
organization  of  knowledge  through  mental  associations 
must  be  forced  upon  the  child  through  actual  practice  in 
grouping  ideas  around  a  central  thought  and  by  obliging 
him  to  recall  previous  knowledge  and  experience  in  con- 
nection with  every  important  idea  in  the  lesson.  All  this 
is  possible  of  achievement  as  soon  as  the  child  has  acquired 
independent  reading  ability,  but  it  cannot  be  accomplished 
through  ordinary  methods  of  assignment,  study,  and  reci- 
tation. 

Good  Silent-Reading  Ability  Essential  to  Study 

Elsewhere  in  this  volume  it  has  been  stated  that  effi- 
cient study  is  efficient  silent  reading.  This  is  entirely 
true  only  if  we  conceive  of  efficient  silent  reading  as  imply- 
ing not  only  thorough  comprehension  of  words  and  sen- 
tences, but  also  the  weighing  of  thoughts,  the  evaluation 
of  facts,  the  classification  of  new  ideas  presented  by  the 
text,  and  their  association  with  previously  accumulated 
knowledge.  If  efficient  silent  reading  is  held  to  be  merely 
the  comprehension  of  the  author's  thoughts  as  expressed 
in  the  text,  then  the  statement  needs  to  be  modified  some- 
what. But  even  with  this  less  inclusive  conception  of 
what  constitutes  efficient  silent  reading,  it  cannot  be  de- 
nied that  good  silent-reading  ability  is  the  basis  of  all 
efficient  study  from  books.     Rapid  silent  reading  with 


240  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

comprehension  is  the  most  fundamental  factor  in  efficient 
study.  The  child  cannot  be  greatly  interested  in  words 
and  sentences  that  he  does  not  understand.  He  cannot 
concentrate  with  profit  on  material  that  has  Httle  or  no 
meaning  for  him.  He  cannot  study  the  relationships  be- 
tween ideas  unless  those  ideas  are  comprehended.  It  is 
past  dispute  that  a  child  must  know  how  to  read  well 
before  he  can  study  well;  and  he  must  know  how  to  study 
before  he  can  produce  better  results  to  be  measured  by 
standardized  tests.  Herein  lies  the  connection  between 
this  chapter  and  all  that  goes  before. 

Good  Silent-Reading  Methods  Encoura.ge  Good 
Study  Habits 

In  addition  to  the  fact  that  good  silent-reading  ability  is 
essential  to  effective  study,  I  submit  that  properly  directed 
silent-reading  drills  furnish  the  most  practical  means 
available  for  developing  good  study  habits  in  children 
through  actual  practice  in  the  factors  of  efficient  study, 
namely,  interest,  attention,  thinking,  and  the  correlation 
and  association  of  ideas.  I  have  said  that  children  must 
be  forced  to  practice  these  things  by  means  of  study  con- 
ditions that  will  compel  such  practice.  Silent-reading 
drill  furnishes  the  medium  through  which  the  forcing  can 
be  accomplished.  The  mental  processes  involved  in 
effective  drill  of  this  sort  are  almost  exactly  the  same  as  in 
efficient  study. 

The  types  of  silent-reading  class  drill  heretofore  de- 
scribed have,  with  us,  proved  very  effective  in  holding  the 
child's  interest  and  forcing  concentration  of  attention  on 
the  matter  being  read.  Probably  more  often  than  other- 
wise in  the  content  subjects  the  children  have  little  inter- 
est in  the  subject-matter  itself.  But  they  do  thoroughly 
enjoy  lively  silent-reading  class  drill.     Their  interest  is 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  HOW  TO  STUDY    241 

mostly  in  the  immediate  objects  to  be  achieved,  namely, 
to  see  who  can  read  the  paragraph  or  page  in  the  shortest 
time  and  understand  it  well  enough  to  give  the  principal 
facts  of  the  assignment  from  memory  and  in  a  connected 
manner;  to  see  who  can  be  the  first  to  discover,  from  among 
the  details  of  the  text,  the  answer  to  a  definite  question; 
or  to  see  who  can  first  discover  the  main  thought  of  a 
paragraph.  The  chief  interest  is  in  the  spirit  of  lively 
competition  engendered  by  these  drills;  but,  nevertheless, 
the  interested,  active,  enthusiastic  cooperation  of  the 
pupils  is  secured  under  conditions  that  make  for  real  im- 
provement in  abihty  to  study. 

It  is  hard  for  any  one  who  has  never  tried  these  methods 
to  realize  the  degree  to  which  they  force  children  to  con- 
centrate their  attention  on  the  work  in  hand.  With  the 
timed-section  method  it  is  manifestly  impossible  for  the 
pupil  to  reproduce  completely  and  coherently  the  main 
thoughts  of  the  section  read  unless  he  has  read  it  atten- 
tively; and,  since  no  one  but  the  teacher  knows  who  is 
going  to  be  called  upon  to  recite  after  the  reading,  every 
member  of  the  class  must  read  attentively.  With  the 
question  method,  even  though  most  of  the  questions  are 
answered  directly  in  the  text,  the  child  must  read  atten- 
tively and  understandingly  if  he  is  not  to  miss  the  answers 
when  he  comes  to  them.  If  the  answer  to  a  question  is 
merely  suggested  by  a  fact  mentioned  in  the  text,  so  much 
greater  is  the  demand  on  the  attention  of  the  reader  and 
real  thinking  is  introduced  as  an  element  in  the  reading. 
If  the  answer  to  a  question  must  be  inferred  from  several 
related  facts  given  in  the  text,  then  the  highest  t>^e  of 
reading  ability  is  demanded  in  that  the  child  must  not 
only  concentrate  his  attention  on  what  he  is  reading,  but 
he  must  do  real  thinking  in  associating  various  ideas  with 
each  other  in  their  proper  relations  and  with  the  main 


242  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

idea  expressed  in  the  question.  Furthermore,  he  must 
hold  the  main  thought  in  mind  all  the  time  he  is  doing  the 
reading  in  order  not  to  miss  pertinent  facts  expressed  in 
the  text. 

Some  Examples 

Let  me  illustrate  some  of  these  points.  Here  is  a  section 
the  answers  to  which  can  be  taken  directly  from  the  text. 

The  sugar  maple,  otherwise  known  as  the  hard  maple,  is  one 
of  the  very  best  of  our  shade  trees.  It  is  well  shaped,  affords 
dense  shade  during  summer,  and  in  autumn  becomes  beautiful 
because  of  the  rich  and  varied  colors  of  its  foliage.  In  the 
spring  its  blossoms  unfold  with  the  leaves.  It  grows  more 
slowly  than  the  soft  maples,  but  it  requires  less  moisture  and  is 
more  useful  and  durable. 

Questions: 

1.  Why  is  the  sugar  maple  a  beautiful  tree  in  autumn? 

2.  Which  comes  first,  the  blossoms  or  the  leaves? 

3.  Which  grows  faster,  the  hard  or  soft  maple? 

These  three  questions  are  given  in  order  of  difficulty, 
or  of  their  thought-producing  power.  The  first  answer 
can  be  taken  directly  from  the  text;  "  because  of  the  rich 
and  varied  colors  of  its  foliage."  The  second  question 
requires  understanding  of  the  fact  that,  in  the  sugar  maple, 
the  leaves  and  flowers  appear  at  the  same  time.  The  third 
one  goes  a  step  farther  and  requires  that  the  pronoun  "  it  " 
be  associated  with  the  maple  tree,  its  antecedent,  and  that 
the  terms  "  sugar  maple  "  and  "  hard  maple  "  be  asso- 
ciated in  the  mind  as  representing  the  same  thing. 

Here  is  another  paragraph  with  a  question  that  requires 
still  more  thought  on  the  part  of  the  reader. 

Maple  sugar,  like  that  made  from  sugar  cane,  is  darker  than 
ordinary  brown  sugar,  unless  the  impurities  are  removed.    To 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  HOW  TO  STUDY    243 

do  this,  milk  or  beaten  eggs  are  stirred  into  the  boiling  sap. 
This  causes  most  of  the  coloring  matter  to  rise  to  the  top  and 
mingle  with  the  froth,  which  is  then  skimmed  off.  Those  who 
live  near  sugar  bushes  enjoy  making  and  eating  maple  wax. 
This  is  formed  by  letting  the  hot  sirup  fall  on  snow  or  ice. 
Question:  How  may  light-colored  maple  sugar  be  obtained? 

It  is  evident  that  finding  the  correct  answer  to  this 
question  necessitates  some  real  thinking  and  association 
of  ideas  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  He  must  connect  up  the 
ideas  that  maple  sugar  is  ordinarily  dark  in  color,  that  the 
dark  color  is  due  to  colored  impurities,  and  that  these  im- 
purities can  be  gotten  rid  of  in  a  certain  way. 

The  following  paragraph  and  questions  demand  even 
greater  concentration  and  still  more  extensive  thinking  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil  if  he  is  to  answer  them  correctly. 

The  leaves  are  the  food-making  organs  of  the  plant,  and  the 
sugar  that  is  made  from  maple  sap  in  the  spring  was  made 
the  summer  before  by  the  leaves  of  the  tree.  As  the  sugar 
is  manufactured  it  passes  down  from  the  leaves  into  the 
trunk  and  roots  of  the  tree,  and  is  stored  in  the  hving  cells  of 
these  parts  in  the  form  of  starch.  Then  when  food  is  needed 
in  the  spring  to  enable  the  buds  to  grow  and  expand  into 
blossoms  and  leaves,  and  to  produce  the  seeds,  the  starch  is 
changed  back  to  sugar,  which  is  dissolved  out  of  the  storage 
cells  and  carried  upward  in  the  sap. 

Questions:  Is  there  much  sugar  in  the  roots  of  the  maple  tree 
in  winter?     Why? 

All  the  data  required  for  inferring  a  correct  answer  to 
these  questions  are  given  in  the  paragraph.  But  in  order 
to  obtain  the  correct  answer,  the  reader  must  comprehend 
several  facts  in  their  proper  relation,  namely,  that  during 
the  summer  the  leaves  of  the  maple  tree  manufacture  more 
food  in  the  form  of  sugar  than  is  needed  by  the  tree  for 
immediate  use;  that  this  surplus  food  is  carried  to  the 


244  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

roots  where  it  is  stored  for  use  the  following  spring;  and 
that  the  soluble  sugar  is  changed  to  insoluble  starch  as  it 
is  stored  in  the  living  cells  of  the  roots,  remaining  there  as 
starch  until  the  following  spring  when  the  sap  begins  to 
rise.  Hence  in  winter  there  is  little  if  any  sugar  in  the 
roots  of  the  tree.  The  understanding  and  correlating  of 
these  facts  so  that  the  correct  answer  may  be  inferred  calls 
for  much  practice  in  real  thinking. 

Habits  thus  Developed  Carry  over  into  Other 
Work 

In  this  way  good  silent-reading  drill  compels  practice  in 
proper  methods  of  study.  Such  practice  tends  to  develop 
good  study  habits  which  may  logically  be  expected  to 
carry  over  into  such  a  closely  related  activity  as  seat 
study.  That  they  do  carry  over,  and  thus  improve  the 
pupil's  ability  to  study  by  himself  even  poorly  assigned 
lessons  in  the  content  subjects,  is  evidenced  by  the  num- 
ber of  teachers  who  have  spoken  to  me  regarding  the 
greatly  improved  study  ability  of  the  majority  of  the 
children  after  one  or  two  years  of  intensive  drills  of  the 
type  described  in  the  chapters  on  silent  reading.  Other 
proof  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  pupils'  test  scores  in  the 
content  subjects,  very  low  in  the  first  tests,  are  increasing 
at  much  more  than  the  normal  rate,  while,  at  the  same 
time,  no  extra  time  or  special  drills  have  been  given  in 
these  subjects  other  than  connecting  them  up  with  the 
silent-reading  word.  Other  types  of  silent-reading  drill, 
to  be  described  hereafter,  serve  to  stimulate  still  more 
strongly  the  higher  thought  processes  and  are  thus  still 
more  conducive  to  the  development  of  good  study  habits. 

Study  should  also  be  Directed  or  Supervised 

A  FAIR  proportion  of  school  time  devoted  to  silent-reading 
class  drills,  in  which  the  teacher  employs  the  methods  and 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  HOW  TO  STUDY    245 

kinds  of  material  used  in  the  better  schools  of  this  district, 
and  described  and  illustrated  in  the  two  preceding  chap- 
ters, together  with  properly  assigned  lessons  in  the  con- 
tent subjects,  will  do  much  toward  solving  the  problem  of 
helping  children  to  learn  to  study  to  good  advantage. 
But  such  procedure  does  not  include  all  that  can  be  done 
to  improve  study  habits  of  children  or  to  economize  study 
time.  In  order  to  get  the  best  results  possible,  the  forced 
practice  in  proper  methods  of  study  must  be  on  the  actual 
lessons  assigned  on  the  content  subjects. 

Furthermore,  if  we  are  to  make  sure  that  the  conditions 
under  which  the  studying  is  done  are  those  most  conducive 
to  economy  of  time  in  learning,  and  the  development  of 
good  study  habits  in  the  children,  the  study  must  be  di- 
rected. This  brings  us  to  my  next  topic,  namely,  "  Super- 
vised Study,"  Because  of  the  obviously  close  relation 
between  proper  supervised  study  and  "  teaching  how  to 
study,"  several  important  things  that  might  be  included 
in  this  chapter  are  reserved  for  fuller  discussion  in  the  next. 


CHAPTER  XV 

SUPERVISED  STUDY 

Possibly  the  greatest  source  of  waste  in  the  public-school 
system  is  the  time  supposed  to  be  spent  by  the  pupils  at 
their  seats  or  at  home  in  trying  to  "  study  "  their  lessons, 
by  their  own  unaided  efforts.  Not  infrequently  half  the 
pupil's  school  time  is  spent  in  "  studying  "  from  books  to 
prepare  for  the  recitations. 

Three  Types  of  Activity  in  "  Studying  " 

Some  pupils  deliberately  idle  away  their  study  time  be- 
cause they  have  no  interest  whatever  in  the  school  or  its 
work.  Compelled  by  law  to  attend  until  they  are  fourteen, 
or  sixteen,  or  eighteen,  as  the  case  may  be,  they  are  sullen 
and  obstinate  and  plan  only  to  kill  time  until  they  are  old 
enough  to  leave  school.  They  are  usually  of  inferior 
mental  ability  and  the  source  of  most  of  the  serious  dis- 
ciplinary problems.  Quite  often  their  attitude  toward  the 
school  is  the  result  of  retardation  and  consequent  dis- 
couragement due  to  the  narrowness  of  a  program  of  school 
activities  which  provides  no  suitable  and  interesting  work 
for  the  moron  t)T>e. 

Many  other  pupils  read  over  their  lessons  in  a  dilatory, 
ineffective  manner  with  their  minds  constantly  wandering 
to  more  inviting  fields  of  thought  in  their  own  sphere  of 
interests.  This  is  largely  because  the  lessons  as  assigned 
present  no  definite  problems  in  which  they  are  interested. 
This  group  usually  contains  bright  and  energetic  boys  and 
girls  who  need  only  to  have  their  school  work  enlivened 
and  their  tasks  made  definite  in  order  to  become  inter- 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  247 

ested  and  enthusiastic  workers.  There  arc  still  others 
who  do  not  waste  their  time  in  idleness  and  day-dreaming, 
but  who  are  busy  every  minute  of  their  stufly  time.  Yet 
the  time  and  energy  even  of  these  pupils  are  largely 
wasted  because  of  ineffective  methods  of  study  and  ill- 
directed  efforts.  They  are  industrious,  and  of  good 
mentality;  and  they  would  really  like  to  study  if  they  but 
knew  how.  As  it  is  they  merely  do  the  best  they  can  under 
unfavorable  circumstances. 

Difficulties  in  Connection  with  Supervised  Study 

A  GROWING  realization  among  educators  of  the  tremen- 
dous waste  connected  with  undirected  study  has  led  to 
the  development  within  recent  years  of  various  plans 
for  supervised  study  in  the  more  progressive  school  sys- 
tems. The  idea  of  supervised  study  is  good,  and  it 
promises  much  in  the  way  of  increased  efficiency  when  it 
is  properly  carried  out;  but,  as  supervised  study  is  ordi- 
narily conceived,  the  practical  difficulties  in  the  way  of  its 
general  adoption  are  prohibitive  in  the  smaller  school  sys- 
tems and  particularly  in  the  one-teacher  rural  schools. 
The  main  difficulty  is  for  the  teacher  to  fmd  the  time  both 
to  conduct  the  recitations  and  to  supervise  the  study 
periods.  The  ideal  solution,  as  it  is  most  generally  advo- 
cated, is  to  have  two  teachers  in  each  room,  one  to  conduct 
the  recitations,  and  the  other  to  supervise  the  study  of  the 
children  at  their  seats.  This  would  necessitate  a  doubling 
of  the  teaching  force  that  would  be  financially  out  of  the 
question  in  most,  if  not  all,  school  systems. 

Personally  I  doubt  whether  this  solution  would  be  ideal, 
even  if  it  were  financially  practicable.  The  teacher  who 
supervised  the  seat  study  could  do  little  more  than  see  that 
every  child  kept  busy  at  his  lessons  and  assist  individuals 
over  difficulties.    Often  her  efforts  would  be  duphcated  by 


248  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

having  to  assist  several  different  pupils  over  the  same 
difficulty  separately.  Any  attempt  to  explain  or  illustrate 
difficult  points  to  the  class  as  a  whole  would  be  apt  to 
interfere  with  the  recitation  supposedly  going  on  at  the 
same  time  in  the  same  room.  Of  course,  keeping  the 
children  busy  and  giving  individual  assistance  to  the  slower 
pupils  would  undoubtedly  be  beneficial;  but  the  benefits  to 
be  derived  from  such  practice  would  scarcely  justify  the 
great  additional  expense  involved. 

In  school  systems  where  each  teacher  has  to  teach  only 
one  undivided  grade  or  one  division  of  a  grade,  the  problem 
of  introducing  supervised  study  may  be  solved  with  com- 
parative ease  and  with  no  additional  expense.  Under 
such  circumstances  the  teacher  is,  for  the  most  part,  free 
during  the  study  periods  to  direct  the  studies  of  the  pupils 
as  may  seem  advisable.  But  here  again,  if  her  efforts  are 
limited  to  keeping  the  children  busy  and  to  assisting  indi- 
vidual pupils,  the  full  possibilities  of  the  study  period  are 
far  from  being  realized.  What  is  needed  is  directed  class 
study  so  organized  as  to  develop  in  the  pupils  methods  of 
attack  that  will  constantly  improve  their  ability  to  do  inde- 
pendent work.  Merely  keeping  them  busy  and  assisting 
them  over  the  rough  places  will  not  do  this. 

Another  device,  and  a  more  practical  one,  is  the  divided 
period,  one  part  of  the  period  being  devoted  to  supervised 
study,  and  the  other  to  the  recitation.  The  recitation  may 
follow  the  study  immediately,  or  the  last  half  of  the  period 
may  be  given  over  to  study  in  preparation  for  the  next 
day's  recitation  so  as  to  give  the  pupils  a  chance  to  do 
further  study  outside  of  class  if  they  so  wish.  But  even 
this  scheme  is  available  only  in  high  schools  where  the 
periods  are  long,  or  in  schools  where  the  teacher  has  only 
one  or  two  grades  so  that  the  class  period  and  the  study 
period  for  each  subject  can  be  combined  into  one  fairly 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  249 

long  period.  In  the  smaller  school  systems,  where  most  or 
all  of  the  teachers  have  charge  of  from  four  to  eight  grades, 
the  time  of  the  teacher  is  necessarily  all  taken  up  with 
recitations  and  the  class  periods  are  so  short  that  division 
of  them  is  not  feasible.  In  each  of  these  class  periods 
there  is  httle  more  than  time  for  a  hasty  testing  of  the 
pupil's  preparation  of  the  lesson  and  for  the  assignment  of 
the  new  lesson. 

Another  difl!iculty  lies  in  the  fact  that  so-called  super- 
vised study,  in  the  hands  of  teachers  who  do  not  rightly 
understand  its  purposes  and  possibilities,  or  who  do  not 
care  to  put  themselves  to  any  more  trouble  than  is  neces- 
sary to  enable  them  to  draw  so  much  per  week  in  salary, 
may  degenerate  into  a  procedure  more  harmful  than  bene- 
ficial. The  chief  features  of  such  a  procedure  have  been 
mentioned  above,  namely,  keeping  the  children  busy  and 
giving  a  certain  type  of  assistance  to  individuals.  Keep- 
ing the  children  busy  at  their  lessons  probably  can  do  no 
harm,  but  the  wrong  kind  of  assistance  can  do  much  harm. 
It  is  quite  possible  for  the  direction  and  help  offered  by  the 
teacher  to  tend  to  make  the  child  dependent  and  utterly 
unable  to  do  a  piece  of  work  for  himself.  In  other  words, 
the  teacher  may  make  herself  a  crutch  rather  than  a  guide. 

The  result  of  this  kind  of  assistance  is  that  children  do 
not  learn  to  work  independently.  Hence  their  inability 
in  the  upper  grades,  in  high  school,  and  even  in  college  to 
use  their  study  time  to  good  advantage.  The  giving  of 
assistance  at  the  right  time,  in  the  right  way,  and  in  proper 
amount  demands  a  type  of  judgment  based  on  a  sense  of 
values  that  is  all  too  rare  in  teachers.  If  supervised  study 
is  to  be  nothing  more  than  giving  undiscriminating  as- 
sistance to  individual  pupils  in  specific  difficulties  —  and 
with  an  unskillful,  or  careless  teacher,  it  is  apt  to  be  little 
more  —  we  shall  probably  do  better  without  it. 


250  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Supervised  study  is  closely  connected  with  teaching 
children  how  to  study  in  that  it  furnishes  the  best  oppor- 
tunity for  such  teaching.  Teaching  how  to  study  does 
not  involve  a  systematic  course  in  psychology.  It  con- 
sists in  guiding  pupils  in  the  actual  practice  of  the  art, 
giving  them  sufficient  directed  practice  in  it  to  make  cer- 
tain reactions  habitual,  and  then  making  them  conscious 
of  the  best  methods  of  study  by  calling  attention  to  the 
elements  in  their  study  experience  that  have  meant  de- 
cided success  or  failure.  Any  supervised-study  plan  that 
does  not  result  in  constantly  increasing  the  ability  of  the 
pupils  to  do  independent  work  is  largely  a  failure.  Here 
as  often  the  correct  point  of  view  is  that  a  teacher's  chief 
aim  should  be  to  make  herself  as  unnecessary  to  her  charges 
as  possible  and  as  soon  as  possible.  Hence  we  must  help 
children  to  learn  how  to  study  in  connection  with  their 
actual  studying.  In  order  to  do  this  effectively  their 
study  must  be  properly  directed,  or  supervised. 

Silent-Reading  Drill  Offers  an  Opportunity  for 
Supervised  Study 

Now,  I  do  not  propose  to  submit  any  complete  plan  for 
supervised  study  that  is  applicable  under  any  or  all  condi- 
tions. I  do  not  hope  to  offer  a  complete  solution  to  a 
problem  that  has  long  been  puzzling  the  minds  of  much 
abler  men.  But  I  do  hope  to  offer  some  suggestions  that 
will  prove  helpful  in  attempting  to  solve  the  problem  in 
actual  practice.  With  this  in  view  I  am  about  to  describe 
some  procedures  now  in  vogue  in  the  best  schools  of  my 
district  which  appear  to  help  materially  along  these  lines. 
These  practices  may  or  may  not  be  correctly  termed 
"  supervised  study,"  but  since  from  them  seem  to  be  de- 
rived most  of  the  benefits  generally  ascribed  to  supervised 
study,  they  may  well  serve  as  substitutes  for  the  latter, 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  251 

whatever  they  may  be  called.  They  have  two  advantages 
at  least:  (i)  they  are  applicable  so  far  as  I  can  see  in  any 
school  or  school  system  however  small,  and  (2)  some  of 
them  can  be  handled  with  profit  by  any  teacher  with 
average  intelligence  and  teaching  ability  who  is  willing  to 
give  them  an  honest  trial. 

I  have  mentioned  in  a  former  chapter  how,  in  our  zeal  to 
increase  the  reading  ability  of  the  pupils  quickly  as  the  first 
step  in  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  schools,  we  decided 
to  amplify  the  time  devoted  to  reading  drill  by  taking 
up  some  of  the  content  subjects,  notably  physiology  and 
hygiene,  and  civics,  by  the  silent-reading  methods  hereto- 
fore described.  This  was  by  way  of  experiment  and  was 
undertaken  at  first  with  considerable  misgivings,  especially 
on  the  part  of  the  teachers.  It  was  feared  that  the  children 
would  not  "  get  "  the  subjects  if  they  were  not  studied  at 
their  seats  and  recited  in  the  orthodox  fashion. 

In  order  to  test  the  efiicacy  of  these  methods  in  fixing 
the  principal  facts  of  the  subject-matter  in  the  minds  of 
the  pupils,  weekly  oral  or  written  quizzes  were  given  to- 
gether with  monthly  reviews  for  which  the  children  pre- 
pared by  reading  over  at  their  seats  the  ground  covered  by 
reading  and  discussion  in  class  during  the  month.  The 
results  were  highly  gratifying  from  the  first  and  soon  re- 
moved all  doubts  as  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  procedure. 
And,  from  the  psychological  viewpoint,  why  should  it  not 
be  eflfective?  The  strict  concentration  of  attention  com- 
pelled by  these  silent-reading  drills  is  much  more  favorable 
to  retention  of  subject-matter  than  is  the  usual  perfunc- 
tory reading  at  seat  in  so-called  study.  Moreover,  the 
reproduction  of  the  principal  thoughts  and  the  class  dis- 
cussion of  important  points  help  the  pupils  to  discriminate, 
consciously  or  otherwise,  regarding  the  things  they  ought 
to  remember. 


252  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

•In  fact,  so  effective  did  this  method  prove  in  producing 
results  and  improving  learning  ability  that,  by  the  middle 
of  the  first  year,  several  of  the  best  teachers  of  the  district 
were  taking  up  much  of  the  regular  geography  and  history 
work  as  silent-reading  class  drill  supplemented  by  frequent 
quizzes  by  way  of  review.  As  explained  before,  practically 
all  of  the  supplementary  historical  and  geographical  read- 
ing was  taken  up  in  this  way  in  the  regular  reading  classes. 

After  giving  the  tests  several  times  and  noting  the 
progress  made  by  the  pupils  in  the  content  subjects  in 
schools  using  this  method,  it  occurred  to  me  that  these 
silent-reading  class  drills  were  proving  themselves  to  be 
really  efficient  forms  of  supervised  study.  It  also  seemed 
clear  that  with  supervised  study  definitely  in  view  the 
exercises  could  be  so  improved  as  to  develop  in  the  children 
the  ability  to  think  and  to  organize  the  facts  gleaned  from 
their  reading,  thus  improving  still  more  rapidly  their 
ability  to  study  independently.  In  short,  properly 
planned  silent-reading  drills  gave  promise  not  only  of  de- 
veloping the  ability  to  read  rapidly  and  comprehendingly 
(which  is  the  very  foundation  of  study  abihty),  but  also  of 
stimulating  the  higher  thought  processes  and  of  giving 
actual  practice  in  the  art  of  efficient  study. 

This  idea  was  presented  to  the  teachers  and  I  found  that 
the  same  thought  had  occurred  to  some  of  them  as  a  result 
of  their  experience  with  the  silent-reading  work.  Several 
of  them  made  excellent  suggestions  and  offered  to  cooper- 
ate in  developing  the  idea.  It  is  some  of  the  processes 
evolved  from  this  beginning  that  I  am  about  to  describe. 

The  simplest  form  of  silent-reading  class  drill  that  can 
be  said  to  have  much  real  value  is  the  timed-section  method 
which  has  already  been  explained  in  detail.  This  was  the 
method  we  used  first  in  all  the  silent-reading  work.  It 
forces  concentration  of  attention  and  helps  greatly  in  the 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  253 

accumulation  of  factual  knowledge;  but  it  does  not  compel 
much  thinking  or  organization  of  ideas,  and  hence  is  not 
specially  valuable  as  a  means  of  putting  supervised  study 
into  eflfect.  Class  discussions  of  the  important  points  in 
the  lessons  in  their  relations  to  the  main  topics  will,  how- 
ever, help  to  overcome  this  defect. 

The  Question  Method  is  Especially  Advantageous 

Although  the  timed-section  method  has  some  advantages 
peculiarly  its  own  and  is  still  much  used  in  reading  supple- 
mentary material  in  story  form,  in  the  better  schools  it  was 
soon  superseded  for  supervised  study  purposes  by  the 
question  method  also  described  in  a  former  chapter.  It 
remains  in  general  use  only  by  the  weaker  and  less  inter- 
ested teachers  of  the  district.  Indeed,  it  appears  to  be  the 
only  method  of  silent-reading  popular  or  practicable  with 
that  class  of  teachers  since  it  demands  less  extra  work  and 
less  skill  in  handling.  With  the  question  method,  however, 
the  questions  can  be  so  selected  as  to  call  attention  to  the 
main  points  in  a  lesson  and  their  relations  to  each  other 
and  to  the  main  topic.  The  pupils  may  thus  be  led  in 
spite  of  themselves  to  do  some  real  thinking  in  addition  to 
having  the  principal  facts  fixed  in  their  minds  and  getting 
the  best  kind  of  reading  practice. 

Let  us  see  how  content  material  can  be  handled  by  the 
question  method  of  silent-reading  drill  so  as  to  get  reading 
practice,  information,  and  practice  in  the  art  of  study  at 
the  same  time.  Suppose  that  the  topic  to  be  studied  is 
"  The  Birch  Tree,"  in  Moseley's  Trees,  Stars,  and  Birds, 
and  that  the  text  assignment  is  chapter  iv,  entitled 
"  Birches."  The  teacher  should  prepare  beforehand  a 
list  of  questions  covering  the  main  points  in  the  lesson. 
A  good  share  of  them  should  be  real  thought  questions  to 
which  the  answers  can  be  inferred  only  by  reading  so  as  to 


254  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

grasp  the  relationship  among  the  facts  given  in  the  text. 
;Most  of  them  should  be  formed  so  that  they  cannot  be 
answered  by  words  or  phrases  taken  directly  from  the 
book  and  without  association  of  ideas  by  the  reader.  Of 
course,  when  the  object  is  merely  to  call  the  attention  of 
the  class  to  some  detail  whose  significance  is  derived  from 
,  its  bearing  upon  some  thought  question  to  be  asked  later, 
a  question  answered  directly  by  the  text  is  permissible. 
It  would  be  advisable  at  first  for  the  teacher  inexperienced 
in  the  use  of  this  method  to  make  an  outline  of  each  topic 
to  be  studied  and  then  to  frame  her  questions  to  cover  all 
the  subtopics  in  the  outUne. 

The  Method  Illustrated 

The  following  selection  is  a  part  of  the  chapter  under  con- 
sideration divided  into  sections  for  silent-reading  drill  and 
with  suitable  questions  following  each  section. 

BIRCHES 

Section  I 

Because  of  their  grace  and  beauty  birches  are  a  favorite 
subject  for  landscape  artists  and  photographers,  and  they  are 
frequently  planted  in  parks  and  on  lawns.  The  white  and  the 
paper  birch  are  the  species  of  birch  most  frequently  planted  for 
ornamental  purposes.  They  are  especially  effective  when 
placed  among  evergreens,  because  of  the  contrast  in  colors. 
Many  of  the  white  birches  have  slender,  drooping  branchlets 
with  deeply  cut  leaves  that  might  be  taken  for  those  of  some 
varieties  of  maples.  White  birch  grows  wild  in  Europe  and 
Canada  and  to  some  extent  in  our  Northern  States,  but  with 
us  the  paper  birch  is  more  common.  Where  a  forest  of  spruce 
or  of  certain  species  of  pine  —  as  white  pine  —  has  been  burned, 
paper  birch  and  aspens  spring  up.    In  the  abundant  sunlight 

'  From  Moseley's  Trees,  Stars,  and  Birds.  Copyright,  1919,  by  World  Book 
Company,  Yonkers-on-Hudson,  New  York. 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  255 

of  the  open  spaces  these  trees  grow  more  rapidly  than  seedlings 
of  the  spruce  or  pine,  and  a  forest  of  birch  and  aspen  grows  up 
in  place  of  the  evergreen  forest. 

Questions; 

1.  Why  are  birches  so  frequently  planted? 

2.  What  are  the  two  favorite  birches  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses? 

3.  Why  are  they  often  planted  among  evergreens? 

4.  Where  does  white  birch  grow  wild? 

5.  Which  is  the  more  common  in  the  United  States,  the  white 
birch  or  the  paper  birch? 

6.  When  a  forest  of  spruce  or  white  pine  is  burned  what 
kinds  of  trees  grow  up  to  take  their  place? 

7.  Which  grows  more  rapidly,  birches  or  pines? 

Section  II 

The  yellow  birch  has  yellowish  or  silvery-gray  bark  which 
has  an  aromatic  odor.  The  bark  of  the  white  birch  and  paper 
birch  is  creamy  or  pinkish  white  and  splits  into  paperlike  layers. 
From  birch  bark  the  Indians  made  canoes,  as  well  as  boxes, 
buckets,  baskets,  kettles,  and  dishes.  In  making  their  canoes 
they  stitched  together  large  plates  of  birch  bark  with  the 
fibrous  roots  of  white  spruce,  coating  the  seams  with  resin 
obtained  from  spruce  and  pine  trees.  In  parts  of  northern 
Europe  the  bark  of  the  white  birch  is  used  for  shingles.  Boats 
made  from  it  are  used  on  the  Volga  River.  From  it  are  made 
birch  oil  and  birch  tar.  Russia  leather  has  an  aromatic  odor 
due  to  the  oil  of  birch  bark  used  in  tanning  it.  As  the  odor 
repels  insects,  this  leather  is  valuable  for  binding  books.  A 
few  such  bindings  in  a  bookcase  are  a  safeguard  against 
insect  enemies,  and  this  oil  is  said  also  to  protect  books  from 
mildew. 

Questions: 

1.  How  could  you  tell  the  bark  of  yellow  birch  from  that  of 
white  birch  if  you  were  blindfolded? 

2.  What  color  is  the  bark  of  the  paper  birch? 


256  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

3.  What  is  said  in  this  section  that  would  indicate  the  origin 
of  the  name  "paper  birch"? 

4.  What  uses  did  the  Indians  make  of  birch  bark? 

5.  Describe  how  the  Indians  made  canoes  of  birch  bark. 

6.  What  is  the  bark  of  the  white  birch  used  for  in  parts  of 
northern  Europe? 

7.  Name  four  other  uses  of  birch  bark  in  Europe. 

8.  Why  is  Russia  leather  especially  valuable  for  binding 
books? 

Section  III 

The  wood  of  the  white  birch  is  used  as  a  fuel  for  smoking 
hams  and  herrings,  because  of  the  flavor  which  it  imparts. 
Being  light  colored,  soft,  and  easily  worked,  it  is  used  for  mak- 
ing spoons,  ladles,  bowls,  and  fish  casks.  Spools,  wooden 
shoes,  ox  yokes,  chairs,  and  tables  also  are  made  from  it. 
Charcoal  made  from  it  is  burned  in  forges,  and  soot  made  from 
birch  fires  is  used  for  making  printer's  ink.  The  wood  of  the 
paper  birch  is  used  for  fuel,  shoe  pegs,  spools  and  toys.  The 
yellow  birch  and  sweet  birch  yield  wood  that  makes  fine  fur- 
niture and  a  good  interior  finish  for  houses.  It  is  often  stained 
dark  red  and  varnished.  It  is  then  said  to  have  a  "mahogany 
finish."  Few  trees  are  useful  for  so  many  purposes  as  is  the 
birch. 

Questions: 

r.  Why  is  white  birch  wood  used  as  a  fuel  for  smoking  meat 
and  fish? 

2.  Name  several  things  made  from  white  birch  wood? 

3.  What  part  does  the  white  birch  play  in  the  manufacture 
of  printer's  ink? 

4.  Name  some  things  made  from  the  wood  of  the  paper  birch. 

5.  What  kinds  of  birch  are  used  for  furniture  and  finishing 
lumber? 

6.  It  is  often  finished  in  imitation  of  what  costly  wood? 

7.  How  does  birch  wood  compare  in  variety  of  uses  with 
that  of  other  trees? 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  257 

Section  IV 

Have  you  ever  thought  of  any  connection  between  the  size 
of  a  tree's  leaves  and  the  coarseness  or  slenderness  of  its 
branches?  Even  in  winter,  birch  trees  look  quite  different 
from  ash  or  hickory,  not  merely  in  color  but  in  the  appearance 
of  the  branchlets.  The  function  of  the  branches  is  to  hold  the 
leaves  up  to  the  light,  and  the  number  of  branches  required 
depends  on  the  size  of  the  leaves.  Trees  with  small  leaves, 
like  birch,  elm,  and  willow,  have  very  numerous  branchlets. 
Those  with  large  leaves,  like  ash  and  hickory,  do  not  require 
so  many  branchlets.  The  leaves  themselves  reach  out  to  the 
light  and  fill  up  the  spaces  in  the  crown  of  the  tree.  Most 
palm  trees,  of  which  there  are  a  thousand  kinds  in  the  tropics, 
do  not  branch  at  all,  but  they  have  immense  leaves  with  long 
stalks  to  reach  out  to  the  light. 

Questions: 

1.  Of  what  use  to  a  tree  are  its  branches? 

2.  Upon  what  depends  the  number  of  branches  which  a  tree 
needs  to  have? 

3.  Why  do  such  trees  as  the  birch  and  elm  need  so  many 
branchlets? 

4.  Which  has  more  branchlets,  a  hickory  or  an  elm?    Why? 

5.  Seeing  a  tree  in  winter,  when  it  is  bare  of  leaves,  how 
could  you  tell  whether  its  leaves  in  summer  are  large  or 
small? 

6.  Why  is  it  necessary  for  most  palm  trees  to  have  very  large 
leaves  with  long  stalks? 

Section  V 

On  the  twigs  or  small  branches  of  a  tree  look  for  small  oblong 
and  elevated  places  on  the  bark.  These  are  called  lenticels. 
They  are  breathing  pores  through  which  the  air  can  enter 
to  reach  the  living  inner  portion  of  the  bark  and  from  which 
water  vapor  escapes.  On  birch  and  cherry  trees  the  lenticels 
may  be  seen  not  only  on  the  branches  but  even  on  the  trunks. 
Here  they  have  become  elongated  by  the  growth  of  the  bark. 


258  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Lenticels  are  to  be  found  on  all  trees.  Where  the  bark  is  very 
thick,  as  it  is  on  old  oaks,  they  are  at  the  bottom  of  deep  cracks. 
Questions: 

1.  What  are  lenticels? 

2.  Where  would  you  look  for  them? 

3.  What  are  they  for? 

4.  What  is  their  shape? 

5.  On  the  trunks  of  what  trees  may  they  be  seen? 

6.  What  trees  do  not  have  lenticels? 

7.  Why  can  they  not  be  seen  on  the  trunk  of  an  old  elm  tree? 

Let  us  consider  the  first  section  in  detail  with  a  view  to 
discovering  how  well  the  questions  cover  the  facts  in  the 
text.  Most  of  the  important  ideas  in  the  section  are  in- 
cluded in  the  following  list: 

1.  Birch  trees  are  graceful  and  beautiful, 

2.  They  are  often  planted  for  ornamental  purposes. 

3.  The  white  and  paper  birches  are  the  favorites  for  planting 
purposes. 

4.  Their  white  color  is  particularly  beautiful  in  contrast  with 
the  evergreens. 

5.  The  paper  birch  is  the  more  common  of  the  two  species  in 
this  country. 

6.  The  destruction  of  a  forest  of  spruce  or  white  pine  by  fire 
is  followed  by  a  growth  of  paper  birches  and  aspens. 

7.  Birches  are  fast  growing  trees. 

Now  compare  this  list  with  the  questions  following 
Section  I.  Are  there  any  ideas  in  this  list  that  are  not 
brought  out  in  the  questions?  Does  the  list  omit  any  im- 
portant ideas  given  in  the  text?  Does  the  list  contain  any 
ideas  not  pertaining  to  the  main  topic?  Is  there  any  doubt 
but  that  the  reading  of  these  questions  one  at  a  time  and 
searching  out  the  answers  will  impress  these  facts  upon  the 
child's  mind  more  surely  and  permanently  than  would  the 
mere  reading  of  the  text  at  seat?    If  you  doubt  it,  try  it. 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  259 

I  met  with  striking  evidence  on  this  point  during  the 
first  year  that  the  method  was  used  in  our  schools.     One 
day  in  the  fall  I  demonstrated  the  method  in  a  certain 
school  for  the  benefit  of  the  teacher.     The  reading  mate- 
rial was  part  of  the  chapter  on  Petrograd  in  Carpenter's 
Europe,  for  which  I  had  a  Hst  of  questions  prepared.    This 
school  had  a  new  teacher  for  the  spring  term  and  it  became 
necessary  to  demonstrate  again.     I  had  kept  the  list  of 
questions  in  my  notebook  for  demonstration  purposes; 
and  I  used  them  again  in  this  same  school  believing  that 
the  children  had  forgotten  all  about  what  they  had  read 
hurriedly  and  but  once  several  months  before.     To  my 
surprise,  several  of  the  children  scarcely  glanced  at  the 
book  as  I  asked  the  questions  in  order,  but  were  ready 
with  the  answers  about  as  soon  as  I  had  finished  the  ques- 
tions.    Fully  half  of  the  questions  were  answered  in  this 
way.    If  I  ever  had  any  doubt  as  to  whether  material  read 
in  this  way  would  "  stick,"  it  disappeared  then  and  there. 
The   questions  pertaining   to   Section   I   are  not   real 
thought  questions.     Not  every  paragraph  furnishes  data 
ipon  which  to  base  such  questions.     This  is  one  that  does 
lOt.     However,  if  the  reader  will  examine  the  other  sec- 
ions  in  connection  with  their  accompanying  questions,  he 
vill  find  a  number  of  questions  that  demand  real  thinking 
if  they  are  to  be  answered  correctly.     In  fact,  the  answers 
to  more  than  half  the  questions  cannot  be  picked  directly 
from  a  single  word  or  phrase  in  the  text. 

Alternating  Supervised  Study  and  Recitation 

With  questions  prepared  beforehand,  this  amount  of  text 
can  easily  be  covered  in  ten  minutes.  Let  us  suppose  that 
ten  minutes  is  all  the  time  available  for  this  class.  At  the 
end  of  the  period  the  pupils  are  told  to  be  prepared  for  a 
review  of  this  lesson  on  the  following  day.     The  next  day 


26o  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

they  are  called  upon  to  answer  the  same  questions  with 
their  books  closed.  Discussion  of  interesting  points  is 
encouraged  as  long  as  it  does  not  wander  too  far  from  the 
main  topic.  On  the  third  day  another  topic  is  taken  up 
in  the  text  as  on  the  first  day,  and  on  the  fourth  day  this 
topic  is  reviewed  from  memory.  This  process  may  con- 
tinue for  ten  days,  and  at  the  end  of  this  time  a  general 
review  may  be  given  either  as  an  oral  or  written  quiz. 
The  questions  for  this  review  are  selected  from  the  original 
lists  which  the  teacher  keeps  in  her  notebook. 

In  this  way  the  reading  drill  and  supervised-study  period 
comes  on  one  day  and  the  recitation  on  the  next.  If 
twenty  minutes  are  available  for  the  class  period  (or  even 
fifteen  if  the  class  is  mostly  composed  of  good  readers), 
the  period  may  well  be  divided  even  though  the  lessons 
have  to  be  shortened.  In  this  case  the  first  half  of  the 
period  should  be  devoted  to  review  of  the  preceding  lesson 
(the  recitation)  and  the  last  half  to  the  reading  of  a  new 
lesson  (supervised  study).  Thus  the  children  may  have 
opportunity  before  the  recitation  for  further  study  if  they 
so  desire.  Few  of  them,  however,  will  find  further  study 
necessary.  With  the  divided  period,  the  general  reviews 
may  come  oftener  —  say  at  the  end  of  each  week.  It  is 
not  well  to  have  these  reviews  cover  too  much  ground;  and 
it  is  surprising  how  much  ground  can  be  covered  in  a  week 
with  a  fifteen  or  twenty  minute  divided  period.  This  is 
especially  true  if  the  children  are  fairly  good  readers  to 
begin  with,  and  if  they  as  well  as  the  teacher  have  become 
accustomed  to  the  method. 

One  need  have  no  fear  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  cover 
the  ground  required,  if  part  of  the  class  period,  or  even 
every  alternate  period,  is  devoted  to  supervised  study  of 
this  kind.  Fully  as  much  ground  can  be  covered;  and, 
judging  from  our  experience  at  least,  the  results  will  be 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  «6i 

quite  equal  to  or  even  better  than  those  usually  obtained 
by  the  traditional  daily  question  and  answer  recitation 
following  a  period  of  unsupervised  seat  study.  With  only 
fifteen  minute  periods  some  of  our  classes  cover  three  or 
four  different  texts  in  one  subject  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
thus  obtaining  a  much  broader  view  of  the  subject  than 
they  could  possibly  have  if  they  were  confined  to  the  study 
of  a  single  text. 

Another  advantage  is,  that  if  most  of  the  content  sub- 
jects are  handled  in  this  way,  ordinary  seat  study  in  these 
subjects  becomes  less  and  less  necessary  for  most  of  the 
pupils.  Accordingly,  the  time  usually  spent  in  seat  study 
can  be  used  for  extended  supplementary  reading  or  in  any 
other  way  that  may  seem  advisable.  One  way  of  using 
this  time  to  good  advantage  is  for  the  teacher  to  put 
questions  on  the  board  covering  assignments  in  textbooks 
and  to  have  the  children  find  the  answers  and  write  them. 
Children  generally  like  to  do  this  sort  of  work.  The 
questions  give  them  something  definite  to  work  on  at  their 
seat.  This  type  of  work,  however,  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  supplant  the  regular  silent-reading  class  drill, 
because  it  takes  no  account  of  the  speed  element  in  reading 
nor  does  it  force  concentration  to  anything  like  the  extent 
that  class  drill  does.  Some  textbooks  contain  at  the  end  of 
chapters  excellent  lists  of  questions  which  may  be  used  for 
this  purpose.  Often,  however,  such  Hsts  of  questions  are 
not  suitable;  and  the  teacher  should  go  over  them  carefully 
before  assigning  them  for  this  type  of  seat  work.  Judging 
from  some  of  these  lists,  one  would  almost  think  that  the 
person  who  framed  the  questions  had  never  seen  the  book. 
After  trying  a  few  such  lists  the  pupils  are  apt  to  become 
discouraged  and  lose  interest  —  and  one  cannot  blame 
them. 

I  believe  that  this  method  of  handling  silent-reading 


262  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

drill  for  purposes  of  supervised  study  will  prove,  on  the 
whole,  to  be  one  of  the  most  useful  that  can  be  devised. 
It  demands  less  extra  work,  and  less  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher;  and  it  covers  ground  more  rapidly  than  most  of 
the  other  methods.  At  the  same  time  it  produces  excellent 
results  from  every  point  of  view.  On  the  one  hand,  it  can 
be  used  to  good  advantage  by  the  teacher  who  is  somewhat 
lacking  in  originality  or  initiative  after  she  has  had  it  ex- 
plained and  seen  it  demonstrated;  but  on  the  other  hand 
it  furnishes  plenty  of  scope  for  the  abler  teacher  to  display 
whatever  skill  she  may  possess.  The  more  skillfully  it  is 
handled,  of  course,  with  full  understanding  of  its  purposes 
and  possibilities,  the  more  efficient  will  it  prove  in  develop- 
ing ability  to  study  independently  and  the  better  medium 
it  will  be  for  practice  in  the  art  of  study.  A  great  deal 
depends  upon  the  skill  and  judgment  used  in  framing  the 
questions. 

Another  Way  of  Conducting  Supervised  Study  —  , 
Finding  the  Topic  of  a  Paragraph 

There  are  other  ways  of  conducting  silent-reading  drill, 
however,  ways  that  make  greater  demands  on  thinking 
abihty  and  that  do  more  to  help  pupils  acquire  the  abihty 
to  grasp  relationships  among  ideas.  The  ability  to  or- 
ganize ideas  in  their  proper  relations  to  each  other  and  to 
some  central  idea  or  group  of  ideas  is  an  ability  that  de- 
velops only  through  actual  practice.  Pupils  must  be  led 
to  do  such  organizing  if  they  are  to  learn  through  practice. 
These  other  methods  are  specially  valuable  as  aids  in 
developing  organizing  ability  in  pupils;  but  they  consume 
much  more  time  and  demand  much  more  skill  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  if  they  are  to  prove  successful.  Neverthe- 
less, they  should  be  used  whenever  the  requisite  time  and 
skill  are  available,  for  they  help  to  develop  in  the  child  an 
ability  that  is  vital  to  his  success  as  a  student. 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  263 

One  good  type  of  such  silent-reading  drill  for  supervised- 
study  purposes  consists  in  having  children  read  paragraphs 
from  a  text  which  has  no  paragraph  headings  or  topic 
sentences,  then  requiring  them  to  suggest  suitable  head- 
ings or  topic  sentences  for  the  paragraphs.  Get  sugges- 
tions from  as  many  dilTercnt  pupils  as  possible  for  each 
paragraph  and  write  them  all  on  the  board.  Then  call  on 
the  class  to  decide  which  one  is  the  best  and  why.  If  at 
first  the  children  seem  at  a  loss  to  know  what  is  required 
of  them  and  no  suggestions  as  to  suitable  paragraph  head- 
ings are  forthcoming,  or  if  from  a  number  of  suggested 
headings  no  satisfactory  decision  as  to  which  is  the  best 
one  can  be  reached,  do  not  tell  them  and  do  not  be  dis- 
couraged, but  lead  them  to  analyze  the  paragraph  under 
discussion.  Have  them  consider  each  sentence  or  state- 
ment in  the  paragraph  with  a  view  to  discovering  a  com- 
mon or  central  idea  to  which  each  statement  or  sentence 
refers. 

Let  me  illustrate.  A  short  article  selected  at  random 
from  an  encyclopaedia  is  on  Cocoa.  Let  us  proceed  to 
analyze  the  second  paragraph  which  reads  as  follows: 

The  cocoa  is  a  small  tropical  tree  cultivated  extensively  in 
Ecuador,  Venezuela,  Brazil,  Saint  Thomas  Island  (ofif  the  West 
African  coast),  Ceylon,  the  West  Indies,  and  Central  America. 
Heat,  moisture,  and  a  deep  rich  soil  are  the  conditions  which 
favor  its  growth.  The  straight,  regular  trunk  usually  attains  a 
height  of  twenty  feet,  and  puts  forth  branches  which  bear  shin- 
ing, oval  leaves,  dark  green  above  and  red  underneath.  The 
flowers,  which  have  five  narrow,  bright-red  petals,  grow  direcdy 
from  the  trunk  or  from  the  older  branches,  and  are  almost 
stemless.  The  fruit,  a  cucumber-shaped  pod  with  a  thick, 
deeply-grooved  rind,  has  the  same  peculiarity.  Each  pod  con- 
tains many  almond-like  seeds,  covered  by  a  thin,  reddish-brown 
shell,  and  within  each  of  the  seeds  is  a  dark  brown  kernel,  the 


264  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

valuable  portion  of  the  plant.  The  seeds  have  the  commercial 
name  of  cocoa  beans,  while  the  kernels  are  called  nuts. 

Sentence  i.  "The  cocoa  is  a  small  tropical  tree  cultivated 
extensively  in  Ecuador,  Venezuela,  Brazil,  Saint  Thomas 
Island,  Ceylon,  the  West  Indies,  and  Central  America."  This 
sentence  tells  us  where  the  cocoa  tree  is  cultivated. 

Sentence  2.  "Heat,  moisture  and  a  deep  rich  soil  are  the 
conditions  favorable  to  its  growth."  Growth  of  what?  The 
cocoa  tree. 

Sentence  j.  "The  straight,  regular  trunk  usually  attains  a 
height  of  twenty  feet,  and  puts  forth  branches  which  bear 
shining,  oval  leaves,  dark  green  above  and  red  underneath." 
This  sentence  speaks  of  trunk,  branches,  and  leaves.  Of  what? 
The  cocoa  tree. 

Sentence  4.  "  The  flowers,  which  have  five  narrow,  bright- 
red  petals,  grow  directly  from  the  trunk  or  from  the  older 
branches,  and  are  almost  stemless."  This  sentence  tells  of  the 
flowers  and  where  they  grow.  Flowers  of  what?  The  cocoa 
tree. 

Sentence  5.  "The  fruit,  a  cucumber-shaped  pod  with  a  thick, 
deeply-grooved  rind,  has  the  same  peculiarity."  This  sentence 
described  the  fruit.    Of  what?    The  cocoa  tree. 

Sentence  6.  "Each  pod  contains  many  almond-like  seeds, 
covered  by  a  thin,  reddish-brown  shell,  and  within  each  of  the 
seeds  is  a  dark  brown  kernel,  the  valuable  part  of  the  plant." 
This  sentence  describes  the  contents  of  the  pod  or  fruit.  Of 
what?    The  cocoa  tree. 

In  this  way  it  is  made  evident  to  every  member  of  the 
class  that  each  sentence  in  the  paragraph  has  reference  to  a 
single  central  topic,  the  cocoa  tree.  The  central  idea  of  the 
paragraph,  tersely  expressed  as  a  topic,  is  a  paragraph 
heading;  or,  briefly  expressed  as  a  complete  statement,  it 
is  a  topic  sentence. 

This  is,  of  course,  slow  work  for  the  children  at  first,  but 
it  is  well  worth  while.  Most  of  the  children  will  grasp  the 
idea  by  the  time  five  or  six  paragraphs  have  been  analyzed, 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  265 

and  after  that  it  is  merely  a  matter  of  practice.  In  a  sur- 
prisingly short  time  they  will  acquire  the  abihty  to  recog- 
nize the  topics  of  paragraphs  merely  by  reading  them 
through  carefully  and  thoughtfully,  providing,  of  course, 
that  the  material  studied  is  well  organized.  In  selecting 
material  for  such  drill,  the  teacher  should  be  very  careful 
to  see  that  it  is  well  organized,  especially  at  first.  We 
have  found  this  type  of  drill  very  popular  with  pupils  when 
handled  by  an  intelligent  teacher  who  knows  what  she  is 
trying  to  do. 

Sometimes  in  analyzing  a  paragraph,  ideas  will  be  found 
that  are  quite  irrelevant  to  the  general  topic.  Through 
such  analysis  the  older  children  at  least  can  be  led  to 
recognize  this  irrelevant  material,  and  it  is  important  that 
they  should  be  trained  to  do  so.  It  is  just  as  important, 
from  the  viewpoint  of  developing  study  ability,  for  the 
child  to  learn  to  recognize  data  not  pertaining  to  the  sub- 
ject under  consideration  as  it  is  for  him  to  learn  to  recog- 
nize pertinent  material.  Hunting  for  irrelevant  state- 
ments in  paragraphs  might  profitably  be  made  a  special 
type  of  silent-reading  exercise  to  be  used  with  reasonable 
frequency  in  the  supervised-study  period. 

Construction  of  Outlines 

Probably  there  is  no  more  effective  kind  of  supervised 
study  (or  silent-reading  drill)  than  is  furnished  by  the 
construction  of  lesson  outlines  in  class  under  the  super- 
vision and  with  the  assistance  of  the  teacher  —  providing, 
however,  that  the  children  are  led  to  do  the  major  part  of 
the  thinking  and  organizing.  Not  all  material  is  suitable 
for  this  kind  of  work;  but  whenever  such  material  is  found 
in  the  texts,  it  should  be  utihzed  so  far  as  time  will  permit. 
The  material  having  been  chosen,  the  first  thing  to  do  is 
to  select  headings  for  main  topics  if  good  ones  are  not 


266  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

given  in  the  textbook.  Sometimes  the  headings  given  in 
the  books  are  poorly  chosen  or  not  well  worded.  In  such 
cases  it  is  good  practice  for  the  class  to  reconstruct  them 
or  find  better  ones.  Then  each  paragraph  should  be  care- 
fully analyzed,  the  relations  between  ideas  studied,  and 
subtopics  chosen  for  groups  of  related  ideas.  Finally,  the 
minor  details  should  be  grouped  under  the  subtopics 
which  they  support. 

Let  us  take  the  before-mentioned  article  on  cocoa  to 
illustrate  drill  in  the  construction  of  an  outHne  by  means 
of  paragraph  analysis.     Here  is  the  article: 

Cocoa  (Ko'-ko)  (originally  Ko-ko'-a)  is  a  reddish-brown 
powder  obtained  by  grinding  the  kernels  from  the  seeds  of  the 
cacao,  or  cocoa,  tree.  It  is  widely  used  in  making  the  popular 
table  beverage  known  as  cocoa.  The  name,  now  in  general 
use  in  English-speaking  countries,  is  a  corruption  of  the  more 
correct  form,  cacao. 

The  cocoa  is  a  small  tropical  tree  cultivated  extensively  in 
Ecuador,  Venezuela,  Brazil,  Saint  Thomas  Island  (off  the  West 
Coast  of  Africa),  Ceylon,  the  West  Indies,  and  Central  America. 
Heat,  moisture,  and  a  deep  rich  soil  are  the  conditions  which 
favor  its  growth.  The  straight,  regular  trunk  usually  attains 
a  height  of  twenty  feet,  and  puts  forth  branches  which  bear 
shining,  oval  leaves,  dark  green  above,  and  red  underneath. 
The  flowers,  which  have  five  narrow,  bright-red  petals,  grow 
directly  from  the  trunk  or  the  older  branches,  and  are  almost 
stemless.  The  fruit,  a  cucumber-shaped  pod  with  a  thick, 
deeply-grooved  rind,  has  the  same  peculiarity.  Each  pod  con- 
tains many  almond-like  seeds,  covered  by  a  thin,  reddish-brown 
shell,  and  within  each  of  the  seeds  is  a  dark  brown  kernel,  the 
valuable  portion  of  the  plant.  The  seeds  have  the  commercial 
name  of  cocoa  beans,  while  the  kernels  are  called  nibs. 

Most  of  the  work  of  getting  the  beans  ready  for  shipment  is 
done  by  negroes.  After  the  pod  is  picked,  a  slit  is  made  in  the 
side  with  a  knife;  the  pods  are  then  broken  open  with  the  hand, 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  267 

and  the  beans  and  their  enveloping  pulp  are  scooped  out  and 
carried  to  a  sweating  house  to  go  through  a  process  of  fermen- 
tation. This  fermentation  makes  the  pulp  easily  removable, 
and  also  improves  the  quality  of  the  kernel.  From  the  sweat- 
ing house  the  beans  are  taken  to  sieves  or  troughs  and  stirred 
under  water  until  they  are  clean  and  smooth.  They  are  then 
dried,  either  in  the  sun  or  by  artificial  means.  Finally,  in 
order  that  the  beans  may  be  protected  against  molds  and 
fungous  growths,  they  are  finished,  or  pohshed.  On  some 
plantations  the  polishing  is  done  by  coolies,  who  dance  upon 
the  seeds  until  every  particle  of  pulp  is  removed,  and  the 
finished  product  shines.  The  beans  are  then  placed  in  bags 
or  barrels  and  shipped  to  the  different  ports  of  the  world,  to  be 
sold  to  manufacturers. 

Powdered  cocoa,  chocolate,  and  cocoa  butter  are  the  chief 
products  of  the  cocoa  beans.  In  the  process  of  manufacture 
the  seeds  are  roasted,  and  the  shells  removed,  and  the  kernels, 
or  nibs,  are  placed  in  a  grinding  mill  with  steam-heated  rollers. 
Because  of  the  heat  in  the  rollers  the  cocoa  mass  flows  out  of 
the  mill  in  the  form  of  a  semi-liquid,  dark  brown  paste  and  can 
be  run  into  deep  pans  and  allowed  to  harden.  If  cocoa  is  to 
be  made,  the  mass  is  remelted  and  placed  in  a  great  press 
which  extracts  a  large  proportion  of  the  fat.  The  substance  is 
then  taken  from  the  press  and  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  in  a 
mill  consisting  of  a  pair  of  rollers  armed  with  teeth.  Before  it 
is  placed  on  the  market  the  powder  is  pulverized  in  a  second 
mill,  then  is  subjected  to  a  thorough  sifting.  Chocolate  is  the 
cocoa  mass  with  the  fat  left  in.  If  sugar  and  flavoring  are 
added,  the  product  becomes  sweet  chocolate.  The  fat  extracted 
from  the  cocoa  is  sold  under  the  name  of  cocoa  butter,  and  is 
used  as  a  basis  for  creams  and  pomades  for  the  hair  and  skin  and 
in  candy  making.  The  shells  of  the  cocoa  beans,  usually 
regarded  as  a  waste  product,  are  sometimes  roasted  with  cofifee 
to  add  to  its  flavor,  and  in  some  sections  peasants  use  them  as 
a  substitute  for  tea  and  coffee. 


068  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

Now  let  us  examine  each  sentence  in  each  paragraph 
and  note  briefly  what  it  tells  us. 

Paragraph  I 

1.  What  cocoa  is  and  how  it  is  obtained. 

2.  Its  use  as  a  beverage. 

3.  Derivation  of  word  "cocoa." 

Paragraph  II 

1.  The  tree  and  where  it  is  cultivated. 

2.  Conditions  favoring  growth. 

3.  Shape  of  trunk  and  shape  and  color  of  leaves, 
4    Flowers  and  where  they  grow. 

5.  Description  of  fruit. 

6.  Contents  of  pods. 

7.  Commercial  names  of  seeds  and  kernels. 

Paragraph  III 

1.  Negroes  do  most  of  the  work. 

2.  Getting  beans  from  pods. 

3.  The  sweating  house  and  its  purpose. 

4.  Removal  of  pulp. 

5.  Cleaning  the  beans. 

6.  Drying  the  beans. 

7.  PoUshing  the  beans.    Why? 

8.  How  polishing  is  done. 

9.  Shipment  of  beans  to  manufacturers. 

Paragraph  IV 

1.  Things  made  from  cocoa  beans. 

2.  Things  done  to  the  seeds. 

3.  Product  of  grinding. 

4.  Extraction  of  oil  to  make  cocoa. 

5.  Grinding  of  residue  to  make  cocoa. 

6.  Second  pulverizing  and  sifting. 

7.  Chocolate. 

8.  Sweet  chocolate. 

9.  Cocoa  butter  and  its  uses. 
10.  Use  of  shells. 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  269 

Now,  with  the  results  of  our  analysis  and  the  minor 
details  of  the  paragraphs,  we  can  easily  construct  our  out- 
line as  follows: 

COCOA 

I.  Cocoa 

1.  What  il  is 

2.  How  obtained 

3.  Use 

4.  Derivation  of  name 

n.  The  Cocoa  Tree 

1.  Where  it  is  cultivated 

2.  Conditions  favoring  growth 

(a)  Heat 

(b)  Moisture 

(c)  Soil 

3.  Appearance 

(a)  Shape  of  trunk 

(b)  Leaves 

A.  Shape 

B.  Color 

4.  Flowers 

(a)  Color 

(b)  Position  on  tree 

5.  Fruit 

(a)  Appearance 

(b)  Contents 

A.  Commercial  names  of 
in.  Preparing  Cocoa  Beans  for  Shipment 

1.  Kind  of  labor  employed 

2.  Getting  beans  from  pods 

(a)  How  accomplished 

3.  Removal  of  pulp 

(a)  Where? 

(b)  How? 

4.  Cleaning  the  beans 

5.  Drying 


270  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

6.  Polishing 

(a)  Purpose 

(b)  How  accomplished 

7.  Shipment 

IV.  Manufacture  of  Cocoa  Products 

1.  Chief  products 

2.  Process  of  manufacture 

(a)  Roasting 

(b)  Shelling 

(c)  Grinding  of  kernels 

A.  Method 

B.  Product 

3.  Making  cocoa 

(a)  Extraction  of  oil 

(b)  Grinding  of  residue 

(c)  Second  grinding 

(d)  Sifting 

4.  Chocolate 

(a)  What  it  is 

(b)  Sweet  chocolate 

5.  Cocoa  butter 

(a)  What  it  is 

(b)  Its  uses 

6.  Use  of  shells 

Two  or  three  such  outlines  worked  out  in  class  each 
term  and  supplemented  by  as  much  seat  work  along  the 
same  lines  as  may  seem  practicable  will  help  tremendously 
in  developing  the  abUity  to  select  the  main  points  in  a 
lesson  and  group  the  minor  details  about  them.  Only  by 
such  practice  can  most  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  grasp 
the  salient  points  in  what  ordinarily  appears  to  them  as  a 
dead  level  of  facts  to  be  memorized  without  discrimination. 
When  the  material  is  so  well  organized  by  the  author  that 
most  of  the  main  thoughts  are  emphasized  by  topic  sen- 
tences and  other  general  statements,  the  outlining  is  com- 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  271 

paratively  simple.  Such  material,  however,  is  the  excep- 
tion rather  than  the  rule.  Nevertheless,  it  should  be  used, 
if  available,  in  the  first  attempts  at  constructing  outlines. 
When  the  main  topics  must  be  inferred  through  the 
association  of  groups  of  related  ideas,  outlining  is  quite 
another  matter  requiring  keen  thought  and  analysis. 
With  judicious  assistance  by  the  teacher,  however,  it  is 
not  beyond  the  abilities  of  fifth-grade  pupils.  The  chief 
elements  of  success  in  this  line  of  work  are,  (i)  intelligent 
selection  of  material,  (2)  careful  study  of  the  material  by 
the  teacher  before  presentation  to  the  class,  and  (3)  skill 
in  presenting  in  order  to  lead  the  children  to  do  most  of  the 
thinking. 

Collecting  Materlal  as  a  Phase  of  Study 

From  constructing  outlines  of  single  lessons  in  a  textbook 
they  should  be  gradually  led  to  the  still  more  difficult  and 
profitable  practice  of  selecting  material  on  a  given  topic 
from  several  books  or  from  other  sources  and  of  construct- 
ing an  outline  based  on  this  material.  In  connection  with 
this  work  they  would  learn  to  ,use  reference  books  properly 
and  easily,  and  also  the  indexes  and  tables  of  contents  in 
other  books.  Very  many  pupils  even  in  high  school 
scarcely  know  that  books  have  indexes,  and  they  are  very 
far  from  connecting  them  with  any  practical  use  in  study- 
ing. It  is  a  pitiful  sight  and  a  sad  commentary  on  the 
intelligence  and  diligence  of  teachers  to  watch  the  average 
pupil  try  to  refer  to  some  particular  topic  in  a  book  by 
turning  the  leaves  one  at  a  time  and  scanning  each  page 
for  the  needed  thought  instead  of  turning  to  the  index  and 
locating  it  in  a  few  seconds. 

The  ability  to  organize  material  gleaned  from  several 
sources  is  particularly  important.  This  kind  of  work  is 
demanded  in  colleges  and  in  many  high  schools.     Yet  not 


272  STANDARDIZED  TESTS 

a  few  high-school  and  college  students  appear  absolutely 
helpless  when  called  upon  to  do  it.  They  go  through 
books  and  magazine  articles  making  copious  notes,  or 
rather  copying  verbatim  sentences  and  paragraphs  that 
seem  to  pertain  to  their  topic.  This  can  scarcely  be  called 
note-taking.  Then  they  connect  these  scraps  together 
with  a  superabundance  of  conjunctions  without  regard  to 
organization,  interject  a  few  phrases  and  clauses  to  make 
smooth  reading,  and  submit  the  result  with  a  sigh  of  relief 
to  the  instructor.  Too  often  they  "  get  by  "  with  this 
sort  of  work  because  so  many  of  them  are  incapable  of 
doing  anything  better. 

Outlines  constructed  as  practice  exercises  in  supervised 
study  should  be  utilized  in  composition  work.  Although 
many  pupils  in  the  Enghsh  classes  learn  to  turn  out  fairly 
good  work  in  narrative  style,  most  of  them  do  not  know 
what  organization  means  as  applied  to  expository  composi- 
tion. Practice  in  this  sort  of  work  should  begin  in  the 
upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school  in  connection  with 
supervised  study  and  silent-reading  work.  Teachers  are 
all  too  prone  to  declare  that  such  work  is  beyond  the 
capabilities  of  elementary  pupUs,  when  the  real  trouble  is 
in  neglect  or  in  lack  of  teaching  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher.  Of  course  it  is  beyond  them  until  they  learn  how 
to  do  it.  So  is  most  everything  else.  But  how  are  they 
going  to  learn  if  they  are  not  given  a  chance  to  practice 
under  proper  conditions. 

In  this  chapter  I  have  tried  to  show  that  eflFective  super- 
vised study  is  not  a  Utopian  dream  possible  of  realization 
only  in  the  larger  and  wealthier  school  systems;  but  that  it 
is  practicable  in  any  school  system  wherein  the  adminis- 
trators and  teachers  have  the  courage,  the  ambition,  and 
the  intelligence  to  attempt  it.     The  fact  that  supervised 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  273 

study,  teaching  how  to  study,  and  silent-reading  drill  are 
so  closely  related  that  drill  in  one,  when  properly  con- 
ducted, serves  in  some  measure  for  drill  in  the  others, 
makes  invalid  any  excuses  for  neglect  of  any  of  these 
highly  important  phases  of  school  work  on  the  ground  of 
lack  of  time. 


INDEX 


Ability  in  reading,  difficulty  of  meas- 
uring, 159. 

Ability  of  teachers,  how  to  measure,  14; 
factors  in,  69. 

Agreement,  factors  producing  lack  of 
teachers,  18. 

Arithmetic,  individual  records  in,  57; 
over-emphasis  on,  44;  sixth  grade, 
paper,  distribution  of  ratings  by 
teachers,  17. 

Association,  keeping  the  right  order  of, 
163. 

Average  mentality,  record  of  child  of,  55. 

Binet-Simon  Intelligence  Scale,  96,  100, 

103. 
Bolenius  Readers,  The,  201. 
Bonuses,  to  teachers,  81. 
Border-line  cases,  107. 
Bright  child,  individual  record  of,  63, 

64. 
Bright  pupils,  identifying  the,  in. 

Causes  of  general  tendencies,  search  for, 
44. 

Cave  Twins,  The,  Perkins,  215. 

Children,  teaching  how  to  study,  234. 

City  systems,  adaptation  of  intelligence 
tests  to  problems  of,  112. 

Civics,  reading  material  for  upper  grades, 
197. 

Class,  record  of,  68. 

Cleveland  Survey  Test,  59. 

Comparing  methods,  ways  of,  84,  86,  91. 

Conditions  revealed  by  the  use  of  stand- 
ardized tests,  39;  effect  upon  meth- 
ods, 94. 

Content  subjects,  individual  records  in, 
62. 

Cooperation  of  teachers,  how  to  secure, 
16. 

Courtis's  Standard  Practice  Tests,  84,  86, 
87,  88. 

Current  events,  reading  material  (or 
upper  grades,  198. 


Dearborn  test,  T02. 

Democracy  and  Education,  Dewey,  148. 

Diagnostic  Language  and  Grammar  Test, 
Charters,  61. 

Diagnostic  value  of  tests,  57. 

DifEculty  of  history  questions,  as  deter- 
mined by  judgment  of  teachers,  21. 

Difficulty  in  teaching  silent  reading  to 
beginners,  the  first,  169. 

Diggers  in  the  Earth,  Tappan,  201. 

Division  Scale,  Woody,  54,  55. 

Dull  child,  individual  record  of,  65, 
66. 

Educational  Tests  and  Measurements, 
Monroe,  De  Voss  and  Kelly,  12. 

Efficiency  of  methods,  compared  by 
standardized  tests,  82. 

Efficiency  of  teachers,  measuring,  69. 

Eliminating  the  variables,  83. 

England's  Story,  Tappan,  196. 

English,  individual  records  in,  61. 

English  Organization  Test,  Greene,  43, 
46,  61. 

Equality,  fallacy  of  the  theory,  99. 

Errors  of  judgment  by  teachers,  98. 

Experiment  in  comparing  methods,  86. 

Factors  in  efficiency  of  a  teacher,  sum- 
marized, 82. 

Factors  in  teaching  ability,  69. 

Fair  method  of  grading  pupils,  9,  il. 

Fallacy,  of  satisfactory  progress  possible 
to  all  pupils,  98. 

Faulty  judgment  of  pupils  by  teachers, 

97- 
First  steps  in  teaching  reading,  160. 
First  words,  teaching  the,  162. 

Geography,  reading  material  for  upper 

grades,  196. 
Geography  Scale.  Hahn-Lackey,  55,  6r. 
Good  habits  of  study,  how  to  encourage, 

238. 
Grade  I,  initiatory  steps  in  teaching 


2/6 


INDEX 


reading,  i6o;  kind  of  material  needed 

for,  178. 

Grading,  by  mental  ages  and  achieve- 
ment tests  substantially  the  same, 
118;  proposed  plan  of,  in  rural  school, 
119. 

Grading  pupils  fairly  and  accurately,  10. 

Grading  purposes,  use  of  intelligence 
tests  for,  30,  1 14. 

Graph  card,  devising  a,  32;  meaning  of, 
33;  described,  39,  54;  tendencies 
shown  by,  42;  composite  seventh 
grade,  42;  composite  fourth  grade, 
44. 

Croup  Intelligence  Scale,  Otis,  37, 41, 47, 

73- 
Group  intelligence  tests,  loi. 
Group,  progress,  record  of,  67,  68. 

Eaggerty  Reading  Examination,  extract 
from,  183. 

Haggerty  tests,  102,  103. 

Handwriting,  individual  records  in,  60. 

History  paper,  eighth  grade,  distribu- 
tion of  ratings  by  teachers,  18. 

History  questions,  weights  assigned  ac- 
cording to  teachers'  judgments,  22; 
ranked  by  number  of  times  missed  on 
test,  24;  summary  of  ranks  and  values, 

25. 
History,    reading   material   for   upper 

grades,  196. 
Eislory  Test,  Starch,  55. 
Home  Life  Around  the  World,  Mirick 

and  Holmes,  210. 
Hutchinson,  Woods,  Health  Series,  196. 

Illustrated  vocabulary,  the,  167. 
Importance     of     developing     efiScient 

readers  in  the  lower  grades,  159. 
Improvement  of  silent  reading,  means 

to,  145- 
Inaccuracy  of  teachers*  marks,  general, 

17- 
Individual  Graph-Record   Card,  Brooks, 

54. 
Individual  Record,  samples  of,  34,  35, 

37,  40,  41,  55,  58. 
Intelligence  Tests,  practical  uses  for,  96. 
Intensive  work,  results  of,  90. 
Investigation  and  readjustments,  use  of 


intelligence  tests  illustrated,  104, 105, 
107. 

Judgment  of  pupils  by  teachers,  faulty, 
97- 

Literature,  reading  material  for  upper 
grades,  197;  why  not  adapted  for 
silent-reading  drill,  199. 

Lower  grades,  reading  the  most  funda- 
mental subject  taught  in,  159. 

Manners  and  conduct,  reading  material 

for  upper  grades,  197. 
Marking,  finding  a  satisfactory  system 

of,  13. 
Marks,  general  inaccuracy  of  teachers, 

17- 
Material,  collecting,  271. 
Measuring  Ike  Results  of  Teaching,  Mon- 
roe, 12,  19. 
Measuring  teaching  ability  by  results, 

69. 
Measurement  of  Intelligence,  The,  Ter- 

man,  96. 
Measurement  of  pupils,  more  reliable 

than  teachers'  judgment,  98. 
Mechanics  of  oral  reading,  a  hindrance 

to  proper  reading  habits,  148. 
Median  score,  26. 
Mental  ages,  and  intelligence  quotients, 

102,  104,  106, 107,  III,  114, 116, 118, 

121-23. 
Mental  attitude,  teacher's,  92. 
Method  vs.  Teacher,  82. 
Methods,    compared    by    standardized 

tests,  82, 84, 86, 91 ;  in  teaching  how  to 

study,  236;  in  teaching  silent  reading. 

Grade  1, 172, 174, 175;  new  vs.  old,  93; 

ways  of  comparing,  84,  86,  93. 
Modification  of  methods  and  materials, 

part  of  a  testing  program,  143. 
Moron,  the  high-grade,  109. 
Multiplication  Scale,  Woody,  31. 

Need  of  intelligence  tests  in  judging 
pupils,  97. 

Objections  of  teachers  to  rating  by  re- 
sults, 72. 
Objective  measurement,  need  of,  98. 


INDEX 


277 


Observation  of  teachers  by  superintend- 
ent, not  a  fair  way  to  estimate  abil- 
ity, 14. 

Oral  quizzes,  50. 

Oral  readings,  the  case  against,  150;  not 
necessary,  for  beginners,  152;  the 
proper  time  to  begin,  154;  the  value 
of,  151. 

Oral-rearling  drill,  144,  146,  148. 

Ordinary  tests  unfair  for  grading  pur- 
fxjses,  II. 

Otis  Group  Intelligence  Test,  102,  103. 

Our  European  Ancestors,  Tappan,  196. 

Outlines,  construction  of,  265. 

Over-emphasis  upon  arithmetic,  44. 

Paragraph  topic,  finding  a,  262. 

Passing  mark,  26. 

Personal  judgment  vs.  objective  meas- 
urement, 98. 

Physiology  and  Hygiene,  reading  mate- 
rial for  upper  grades,  196. 

Pictures,  the  use  of,  167. 

Plan,  for  comparing  teacher's  work 
under  new  methods,  93;  for  teaching 
silent  reading,  an  effective,  160. 

Practical  notes,  upon  use  of  intelligence 
tests,  96. 

Primers  and  first  readers,  comment 
upon,  170. 

Problems  of  city  superintendents,  how 
standardized  tests  can  help,  112. 

Program  of  studies,  as  a  guide  for  pro- 
motion purposes,  13. 

Progress,  general,  individual  records  in, 
62;  of  pupils,  measuring,  12,  52. 

Punctuation  Scale,  Starch,  61. 

Pupils,  grading  the,  36;  how  to  measure 
progress  of,  12. 

Pupils'  opinions  of  standardized  tests, 
j       134-42. 

Question  Method,  the,  253,  254-57. 
Questions  in  history,  ranked  according 
to  difficulty,  20. 

Rating  teachers,  plan  for,  73,  76,  77,  78; 

intelligence  tests  used  in,  1 10. 
Reaction    of    teachers    and    pupils    to 

standardized  tests,  124. 
Reading  Aims  and  Methods,  143. 


Reading,  as  a  separate  subject,  in  the 
upper  grades,  193;  causes  of  poor  re- 
sults in,  49;  new  policy  in,  50;  individ- 
ual records  in,  56;  material,  types  for 
upper  grades,  196;  scores  of  fifth  grade 

in,  75- 
Reasoning  Test  in  Arithmetic,  Monroe, 

59- 
Results,    as   the    measure   of    teaching 

ability,  69;  need  of  testing  methods 

by,  94;  of  Mental  Tests  in  a  selected 

school,  120. 
Retarded  children,  109. 
Riverside  Primer,  The,  185. 
Rural  school,  proposed  plan  of  grading 

in,  119. 

Safeguarding  tests  from  pupils,  im- 
portance of,  29. 

Salary  and  rating,  80. 

Schedule  of  silent  reading  for  upper 
grades,  195. 

Science  of  Everyday  Life,  The,  Van  Bus- 
kirk  and  Smith,  219. 

Scores,  converted  into  grades,  31. 

Second  grade,  reading  in  the,  186. 

Second  Readers,  comment  upon,  176. 

Sentences,  teaching,  165. 

Silent  reading,  ability  not  ensured  by 
drill  in  oral  reading,  144;  criticism  of 
current  methods  of  teaching,  157; 
effective  plan  for  teaching,  160;  good 
selections  and  directions  for  use,  202- 
29;  how  good  methods  encourage  good 
study  habits,  240,  244;  in  the  lower 
grades,  159;  kind  of  material  needed 
for,  200;  methods  actually  used,  156; 
schedule  for  upper  grades,  195;  why  it 
should  be  taught  first,  155. 

Silent-reading  ability,  essential  to  study, 

239- 

Silent-reading  drill,  an  opportunity  for 
supervised  study,  250. 

Silent-reading  material,  ways  of  using, 
230. 

Silent-Reading  Test,  Courtis,  131 ;  Mon- 
roe, 54,  160. 

Special  reading  classes  for  the  upper 
grades,  how  organized,  194- 

Special  teaching  methods,  relative 
values  of,  83. 


278 


INDEX 


/ 


Spelling,  individual  records  in,  60. 
Spelling  Scale,  Ayres,  55,  60. 
Standardized    test,    used    to    measure 

progress,  53;  opinion  of  teachers  and 

pupils,  126-42. 
Story  of  the  Greek  People,  Tappan,  196. 
Story  of  the  Roman  People,  Tappan,  196, 

222. 
Study,  teaching  children  to,  15,  234. 
Supervised  study,  244,  246,  262;  alter- 
.    nated  with  recitation,  259;  difficulties 

in    connection    with,  247;    practical 

method  of,  15, 

Teacher  vs.  Method,  82. 

Teachers,  how  to  measure  ability  of,  14. 

Teachers'  judgments  of  progress  un- 
satisfactory, 52. 

Teachers'  opinion  of  standardized  tests, 
126-34. 

Teachers'  tests  as  written  reviews,  27. 

Teaching  ability,  factors  in,  69. 

Teaching  how  to  study,  practical  method 
of,  15. 

Teaching  methods,  relative  values  of,  83. 

Tendencies  shown  by  the  graphs,  42. 

Test,  in  history,  23. 

Testing-methods  by  results,  need  of,  94. 


Testing,  supervising  the,  30. 
Third  Grade,  reading  in  the,  190. 
Time  limit,  necessity  for,  28. 
Timing,  need  of  accurate,  27. 
Trees,  Stars  and  Birds,  Moseley,  253. 

United  Slates,  The,  Winslow,  224. 
Unjust  blame  of  teachers,  108. 
Upper  grades,  reading  in  the,  193. 
Usable  material  in  primers  and  first 
readers,  171, 

Values,  of  teaching  methods,  relative, 

83. 
Variables,  eliminating  the,  83. 
Visual  Vocabulary,  Thomdike,  49,  62. 
Vocabulary  building,  51. 
Vocabulary,  the  illustrated,  167. 

War  with  Germany,  influence  in  devel- 
opment of  group  intelligence  tests, 

lOI. 

Ways  of  using  reading  material  in  the 
lowest  grades,  172,  174,  175;  silent 
reading  material,  230. 

Woody  Scales,  for  measuring  ability  of 
pupils,  88,  89. 

Writing,  the  situation  in,  47. 


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